The Relationship Between Class Size And Secondary School Student's Academic Performance In Geography

The relationship between class size and academic performance of secondary school students in geography has been a perplexing one for educators. Studies have found that the physical environment, class overcrowding, teachers' methods, grade level, pupil characteristics and subject areas and other learning interventions are the variables that affect students’ achievement (Molnar, et al., 2000). Other factors that affect student achievement are school population and class size (Gentry, 2000 Swift 2000).

Since the attainment of independence in 1960, Nigeria has been experiencing unprecedented growth and expansion in secondary school education. According to Fafunwa (1982) secondary schools increased from 315 – 1240 between 1960 and 1965, the figure quadrupled in 1970 as a result of the revenue generated from the oil boom in Nigeria. In all the states of the federation, there was a corresponding increase in students’ enrolment at both primary and post-primary schools, the increase is evident as it cuts across all the secondary school subjects including geography.

The core subjects are the basic subjects which will enable a student to offer Arts or Science in higher education, the classification of geography as a core subject, therefore, enhanced the status of the subject in the secondary school education system the fact that geography belongs to social science, art and pure science also makes the subject popular among the students, so also the inclusion of geography in the same group with literature in English, History, Economics, and Political Science also makes the subject popular among the students, and also gives them a wider choice, literature is seen by most students as too wide, while history is becoming a dead subject as a result of the teaching of government.

Geography has consequently attracted more students in recent years which results in a significant increase in the total number of student enrolment which has created logistic, structural and personal problems. While the large number of students studying geography does not correspond with the stagnant facilities and the primitive resources available in most schools.

Statement of the Problem

It is observed that the number of geography students in Abeokuta-South Local Government Area of Ogun State is increasing exponentially but there are little or no corresponding resources for effective teaching and learning of geographies, such as classrooms, laboratories, charts, maps, and the number of teachers are not enough while the little available resources are over laboured. For instance, a geography class that was supposed to be a 1:40 teacher – students ratio, according to the specification by the National Policy on Education (1977 revised in 1981, 1998 and 2004) is now a 1:80 teacher – students ratio or more.

Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of this study is to find out the relationship between class size and secondary school student academic achievement in geography using some selected secondary schools in Abeokuta – South Local Government Area of Ogun State as a case study. The specific objectives are to:

(i)

Examine both positive and negative effects of class size on the academic performance of students in geography.

(ii)

Examine the relationship between class size and academic performance of students in geography.

(iii)

Examine the relationship between school population and academic performance of students in geography.

(iv)

Examine the relationship that exists between the opinion of male teachers and female teachers on the effect of class size on students' academic performance in geography.

Research Questions

(i)

What is the relationship between class size and academic performance on students’ comprehension of geography?

(ii)

Does class size influence project execution in geography?

(iii)

Does class size have an effect on the level of attention in geography class?

(iv)

What influence does class size have on students' scores in geography?

Research Hypothesis

H01: There is no significant relationship between the opinion of male and female teachers on students' academic performance in geography.

H02: There is no significant relationship between class size and students' academic performance in geography.

H03: There is no significant relationship between the opinion of teachers and principals on the effects of class size on the academic performance of geography students.

H04: There is no significant relationship between class size and students' scores in academic performance in geography.

Scope of the Study

This research work focuses on the relationship between class size and student academic achievement in geography using some selected secondary schools in Abeokuta – South Local Government Area of Ogun State as a case study. This research work covers all public secondary schools in Abeokuta – South Local Government Area of Ogun State. However, five public secondary schools will be used as a case study.

Significance of the Study

This study is important for several reasons.

Firstly, the researcher believes that this study will expose and enlighten the school administrators and teachers on the negative and positive effects of class size on students' academic performance in geography in secondary school in Abeokuta – South Local Government.

Secondly, the suggestions offered in this study will assist the educational authority in planning and administration of the school curriculum, most especially in the area of evaluation of students' academic performance in geography.

Thirdly, this research work will lead to a further in-depth study on the impact of class size and school population on the academic performance of students in Nigeria.

Lastly, it will serve as a contribution to knowledge in the subject area. In this regard, it will be useful for other researchers who might want to carry out research in related areas.

Definition of Terms

Effects: This is the positive or negative effect of class size.

Class size: The total number of students in the class

Positive: This means the maximum number of students that should be in the classroom.

Negative: This means the number of students has increased above the maximum estimate.

Abeokuta

–South: This is one of the twenty Local Government areas of Ogun State.

Core Subject: This is one of the main subjects in secondary school.

Classification: This means the grouping of geography into different categories such as physical, human, and regional geography.

Academic achievement: Knowledge attained or skills developed in school subjects by test scores.

Secondary School: (also “high school”) is a term used to describe an educational institution where the final stage of schooling, known as secondary education and usually compulsory up to a specific age takes place? It follows elementary or primary education and may be followed by university (tertiary) education.

Over-crowding: This is when the number of students in a particular class exceeds the standard of students – teacher ratio, as specified by the National Policy on Education, which is 1:40 (One teacher for forty students in a class).

Abstract

The study found the relationship between class size and academic performance of geography students in secondary school in Abeokuta – South Local Government Area of Ogun State.

The study adopted a random sampling technique to select one hundred and twenty respondents in five secondary schools in each ward of the Local Government. Pearson correlation was used to test the hypothesis.

The results showed that male and female teachers were similar in their opinion on the relationship between class size and academic achievement of secondary school students in geography, indicating that the performance of students in large classes was very low compared to those in smaller classes.

It was recommended that policymakers and government should recruit more geography teachers and ensure that more classrooms are built and the number of students in a class should not be more than 30.

EDITOR SOURCE: The Relationship Between Class Size And Secondary School Student's Academic Performance In Geography In Abeokuta-South Local Government Area Of Ogun State

 

A Survey Of Causes And Management Of Teacher’s Behaviour Problems Among Headteachers

Cases of violence and behavioural problems in primary schools in Nigeria have attracted much concern from the government, institutional functionaries and academic fellows in recent years. Despite the implementation of the many suggested solutions given by researchers, these problems are still on the increase in our primary schools.

This study is an attempt to find out some of these behavioural problems and their causes. It has been suggested by parents and educational administrators that the school today is a less disciplined community than in the olden days. The impression which has been created is that the teachers today commit more offences than their counterparts did in past years.

The number, variety and magnitude of school offences frequently reported in the country's news media are such that are very serious enough to cause some concern for people who are involved in the school administration. The question is whether the present deterioration in the standard of behaviour of teachers if not checked will lead society and the future generation to disaster.

In the words of Professor Aminu Jubril (1988), behaviour can be described as any action resulting from the expression of a particular trait. Behaviour can describe any action and it is most often used in the context of altering the propensity for action e.g. an aggressive trait can lead to aggressive behaviour.

Also, the behaviour could simply refer to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. Behaviour can be conscious or unconscious, overt or covert and voluntary or involuntary. During the launching of the War Against Indiscipline behaviour at Cocoa Board Ibadan, (1984) Chief J.A. Akinsipe the Company’s General Manager listed the following as acts of indiscipline behaviour: lateness, use of office hours for private business, malingering delay in taking actions, taking actions out of malice, wasting the smallest material in the office, dereliction of duty, pleading sectional prejudice in order to avoid disciplinary action, covering staff who indulge in acts of indiscipline because of family, social other connections (Daily Sketch Tuesday, October 16th 1984).

Obadanjo (1987) while presenting an introductory paper on principals’ conference workshop on school behaviour referred to examination leakage, fraud and unscrupulousness on the part of teachers as acts of indiscipline. In addition to the General’s list, the headmaster listed the following offences among the common ones committed by teachers which include leaving the school compound without permission, unpunctuality, insubordination strikes e.t.c.

Since then there had been a series of workshops and conferences and government actions to fight against this cankerworm eating deep into the nation. In 1988, the out stated Second Republic Government recognized the gravity of behavioural problems in schools among teachers throughout the whole country that a whole ministry was made to take charge of the responsibility of solving these great problems of the nation.

Also, the Daily Sketch of November 19th, 1985 published the comment of the Minister of Education Professor Aminu Jubril about behaviour in our school’s system. He said among other things that there was an urgent need to ensure that teachers are groomed to be disciplined citizens. In most Nigeria Educational institutions particularly primary schools where teachers are adults, behavioural problems are so rampant; that education has been promoted to seek ways of controlling them or eliminating them entirely. Educators should not, therefore wait for such a time when these problems will multiply but act before behavioural problems get out of hand.

In order to correct the situation in our schools, our educational system must be well designed so as to instil in our teachers the need to be behavioural conscious, to restrain from evil things to have respect for schools authorities. Any society, which is not disciplined, cannot progress, so also a school that lacks discipline is bound to fail. This is because discipline helps to create orderliness which in turn gives room for effective teaching and learning.

Statement of the Problem

There have been cases of unrest in the primary institutions in Nigeria, especially after the independence. The trend continues to escalate annually. This study is to investigate the causes of behavioural problems in some selected schools in the Ilorin West Local Government Area of Kwara State.

In fact, school administrators have tried to eradicate these problems but with little or no success. And the objective of education cannot be achieved in an indiscipline atmosphere. It is pertinent that behaviour is essentially ensured for effective learning.

This study therefore aimed at investigating the causes of behavioural problems and ways of managing the behaviour.

Purpose of the Study

This study sought to ascertain the various ways in which behavioural problems manifest themselves among primary school teachers. Thus the study aims to:

(i)

Examine the causes of behavioural problems in selected primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area of Kwara State.

(ii)

Recommend some ways in which these problems can be completely eradicated so as to pave way for the smooth running of schools and to achieve high academic performance as well.

(iii)

It is equally important to mention that the identification of such problems in primary school and the suggestions for their possible eradication may assist the schools to give urgent and quick solutions to such problems when they occur.

(iv)

Providing adequate solutions to such problems, if and when they exist will enhance effective teaching and learning in school which will make the teachers use for themselves and the society at large.

General Questions

1.

What is the Headmaster factor influences teachers' willingness to exhibit behavioural problems in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area?

2.

Do parental factors influence teachers’ willingness to exhibit behavioural problems in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area?

3.

What are the Headmasters’ arrestive measures to manage teacher behavioural problems?

4.

What are the roles of Headmasters in managing teachers’ behaviours problem in primary schools in the Oyun Local Government Area?

5.

What are the Headmasters’ settlement/resolution measures to manage teachers’ behavioural problems?

Research Questions

The following research questions: guided the study: -

1. Is there any significant relationship between the Headmaster factor influencing teachers' willingness to exhibit behavioural problems in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area?

2. Is there any significant relationship between parental factors influencing teachers’ willingness to exhibit behavioural problems in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area?

3. Is there any significant relationship between government factors influencing teachers’ willingness to exhibit behavioural problems in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area?

4. Is there any significant relationship between the roles of Headmasters in managing teachers’ behaviours problem in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area?

5. Is there any significant relationship between Headmasters’ arrestive measures to manage teacher behavioural problems?

6. Is there any significant relationship between Headmasters’ settlement/resolution measures to manage teachers’ behavioural problems?

Research Hypotheses

For the purpose of this study, the following null research hypotheses are formulated:

1. There is no significant relationship between the Headmaster factors influencing teachers' willingness to exhibit behavioural problems in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area.

2. There is no significant relationship between parental factors influencing teachers’ willingness to exhibit behavioural problems in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area.

3. There is no significant relationship between government factors influencing teachers’ willingness to exhibit behavioural problems in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area.

4. There is no significant relationship between the roles of Headmasters in managing teachers’ behaviours problem in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area.

5. There is no significant relationship between Headmasters’ arrestive measures to manage teacher behavioural problems.

6. There is no significant relationship between Headmasters’ settlement/resolution measures to manage teachers’ behavioural problems.

Significance of the Study

The significance of this study is that it will give an insight into the factors that may be responsible for behavioural problems among teachers in primary schools. The importance of this study also lies in the fact that it will throw more light on this “ancient problem” that has been disturbing and eaten up the very root of our society.

In the past, many people through behavioural problems were limited to just the students, principals and the Ministry of Education alone. Thus research however recognizes the fact that teachers also play some vital roles in either controlling or breeding behavioural problems in schools. This study will help in reducing cases of behavioural problems in primary schools.

Operational Definition of Terms

In order to minimize ambiguity in this study, it is necessary to define the operative words used therein. The writer is aware that it is difficult to give a clear definition which is universally acceptable but an attempt will be made on the words used in this research work.

The definitions are thus only aimed at helping the reader to follow the thought of the writer.

Truancy: This is perpetual absenteeism from school or failure to come to school regularly.

Disobedience: This refers to all acts of refusal or failure to obey orders or school rules and regulations.

Causes: That is a stimulus to or responsibility for the exhibited behaviour.

Teacher(s): A person who has completed a professional curriculum in an educational institution and whose training has been officially recognized by the award of an appropriate teaching certificate.

Malingering: Pretend to be ill in order to escape duty or work.

Dereliction: Neglect of duty.

Indulge: Gratify, give way to and satisfy desires, and overlook the faults.

Behavioural Problems: Undesirable acts exhibited by teachers in school such as lateness, truancy, strike etc.

Factor: Refers to those things that are causative.

Problems: Question to be solved or decided.

Behaviour: Ways of conduct or manners (good or bad) or treatment shown towards others.

ABSTRACT

This research study attempted to identify ways in which behavioural problems manifest themselves among head teachers in primary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area of Kwara State.

It also attempted to find the causes and management or control such indiscipline behaviours and made recommendations for their management. The necessary data for the research study were collected through the use of a questionnaire. One hundred teachers were randomly selected for the study. Chi-square statistical procedure was used to analyse the data.

The result showed that the teachers surveyed shared the same view with regards to age, sex and home background as responsible for behavioural problems. Respondents also shared the same opinion with regard to the various ways or methods that can be used to control or manage indiscipline, and behaviours in primary schools.

On the basis of the findings, recommendations were made that guidance and counselling services should be organized, seminars and conferences to emphasise more indiscipline behaviours in the schools.

EDITOR SOURCE: A Survey Of Causes And Management Of Teacher’s Behaviour Problems Among Headteachers In Primary Schools In Ilorin West L.G.A

 

Emotional Intelligence And Locus Of Control As Predictors Of Teachers’ Instructional Leadership

 

 

 

 

 

 

  Recently, the reports of poor academic achievement of students especially in secondary schools have raised more attention and greater concerns among stakeholders in Nigerian education. Academic achievement or academic performance is the outcome of education, that is the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals (Ward, Stoker, & Murray-Ward, 2000). Academic achievement is commonly measured by continuous assessment or examination but there is no general agreement on how it is best tested or which aspects are most important, whether procedural knowledge such as skills or declarative knowledge such as facts (Stumm, Hell, & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2011). Irrespective of the method of academic measurement, Isangedighi (1999) observed that indiscipline, drug addiction, poor socio-economic background of the parents, inadequate motivation on the part of students, lack of information coupled with teachers’ nonchalant attitude to work and students’ negative self-concept have often resulted into students’ inconsistent and poor academic performances. Yoloye (1999) submitted that theories of educational disadvantages and social-cultural pathology have been most prominent in the explanation of poor academic achievement of students in schools. On the contrary, a growing number of scholars, have rejected this latter view and have suggested that many of the problems of learning are the artefacts of discontinuities which are brought about by the separation of learning from real-life functions and situations (Fagbemi, 2001) and by the exclusion of the child’s language, values and mode of cognition from the school environment (Ugodulunwa, 2007). It seems that the causes of low academic achievement are diverse and cannot be associated with a single factor alone. For instance, Adamu (1998) observed that self-concept and its variables may be a paramount factor in academic failure. Tukur & Musa (2001) attributed the causes of fluctuating performances among students to teacher-student interactions, intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, classroom behaviour and other extraneous variables. The above may be responsible for the academic achievement of students in the area of the study. In Enugu State, the academic achievement of secondary school students has been observed to be generally poor. A look at the West African Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination results in the past eight years (2005-2012) shows clearly the declining state of secondary school students’ achievements in external examinations in the state. The West African Certificate Examinations Council’s (WAEC) result analysis has it that in 2005, only 27.53% of candidates who sat for the senior secondary school certificate exanimation had five credit passes and above including English Language and Mathematics (WAEC, 2010). The same trend continued in 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011and 2012 where only 15.56%, 25.54%, 13.76%, 25.99%, 24.94%, 30.99% and 25.76% of candidates respectively obtained five credit passes including English Language and Mathematics, which are the minimum entry requirement for admission into Nigerian Universities.

It is believed that many factors could be responsible for the poor achievements of the students in external examinations in the State. Such factors may range from the nature of school administration, and environment, to the qualification and teachers’ characteristics such as emotional intelligence, locus of control and gender. Ali (2004) observed that there was a statistically significant relationship between teacher characteristics and students’ academic achievement. The author further explained that teachers’ characteristics are strong determinants of students’ achievement in secondary schools. Teachers have a lot of influence on classroom practices. Teachers are expected to apply specific abilities without which their influence may not be reflected in their student's achievement in the subject. These characteristics are very influential in students’ learning experiences and critical in determining the extent of students’ achievement. This means that teachers’ emotional intelligence, locus of control and gender may predict teachers’ instructional leadership model which in turn determines students’ achievement since teachers provide the vital human connection between the content, environment and learner. It becomes necessary to examine such teacher characteristics as emotional intelligence and locus of control to determine the extent they predict teachers’ instructional leadership model in secondary schools.       

Leadership is very vital in every organization for the effective management of human and material resources required for the achievement of organizational objectives. Railey (2000) defined leadership as the act of guiding or directing others to a course of action through persuasion or influence. According to Bush (2003), leadership is the process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group goals. It is a relational attribute which emphasizes the behaviour of the person leading in terms of the behaviour of the person being led. Leadership in the context of this study refers to the process whereby the teacher exercises authority over the students in the classroom and coordinates the students’ activities toward achieving set educational goals. Leadership is not a mere exertion of brute power over those who are led. It demands qualities which make it possible for the leader to exercise authority beyond that guaranteed by virtue of the position.

           Leadership is of fundamental importance in any system such as educational institutions. Arinze (2011) postulated that a good leader manages resources efficiently to achieve goals; provides a sense of direction towards attaining individual and collective goals; allocates and utilizes limited resources for the satisfaction of the basic needs of the citizenry. Akume (2012) asserted that a good leader mobilizes resources for the attainment of consensus goals of the collective interest; makes decisions for the attainment of societal goals; extracts, produces and distributes channels towards promoting the good life for all in the polity; disciplines and subjects individuals positively to the orderly demand and sacrifice necessary to attain set goals. Based on the importance of leadership in society, teachers provide leadership in schools to achieve educational goals.

A teacher, according to Unachukwu (1990), is a person who attempts to help someone acquire or change some knowledge, skills, attitude, idea or appreciation. Obanewa (1994) stated that a teacher is someone who has undergone the necessary and recommended training in teacher preparatory programmes and is charged with the full responsibility of managing the classroom in such a way as to enhance the learning behaviour of the students. Obanewa further stated that some human qualities that may enable a teacher to achieve most educational goals in the school include the ability to master the subject; exercise self-control; take the right decisions and demonstrate good instructional leadership all the time.

Instructional leadership according to Heywood (2006) is actions taken by an individual to promote students’ learning. That is the leadership that encourages educational achievement by making instructional quality the top priority of the school. In the view of Zepeda (2008), instructional leadership is the dynamic delivery of the curriculum in the classroom through strategies based on different leadership models to ensure optimum delivery. Zepeda further explained that instructional leadership focuses on teaching and learning in order to realize the objectives. In the context of this study, instructional leadership means the adoption of different leadership models in the dynamic delivery of the curriculum to ensure the realization of its objectives. The forms of leadership demonstrated by teachers in schools, in this study, are referred to as teachers’ instructional leadership models. When the instructional leadership model is effectively utilized, all stakeholders can move forward in the knowledge that whatever the current economic, political or social climate might be, optimum teaching and learning are being achieved for their students.

Teachers adopt different models of leadership in schools based on their varying backgrounds and experiences. Lewin, Lippit and White (1939) stated that the major models of leadership include authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. According to the authors, a teacher with authoritative instructional leadership demonstrates respect for every student in the classroom while sharing responsibilities with every student. Decision-making and communication are based on consultation, deliberation and participation among the students. This permits self-expression, creativity and teacher-student interaction. The authoritarian model of instructional leadership according to the authors emphasizes the achievement of the objective at the expense of human consideration. That is, the teacher takes decisions exclusively believing that students are weak, unwilling to study, incapable of self-determination and have limited reasoning. Therefore, they must be directed, pushed and forced to do work. With reference to the permissive model of instructional leadership, the teacher allows complete freedom to the students and they behave as they wish in the class due to the teacher’s tolerance. Students are usually left to study under their own instruction or supervision. These three models of instructional leadership are effective depending on the situation in the classroom. Though, each has its own strengths and weaknesses. For instance, an interaction between the researcher and 52 secondary school teachers in two external examinations (WAEC) marking centres in the area of the study revealed that 43% of teachers are authoritarian, 19% of teachers are authoritative while 38% of teachers are permissive in their instructional leadership. For this study, how emotional intelligence and locus of control predict teachers’ instructional leadership would be determined.    

Emotional intelligence is defined by Mayer (2002) as one’s ability to understand and regulate one’s own emotional responses as well as adapt and respond to others. Salovey (2002) viewed emotional intelligence more specifically as the ability to perceive emotions, access knowledge, reflectively regulate emotions and promote emotional and intellectual growth. Emotional intelligence could be concerned with understanding oneself and others, relating to people, adapting to and coping with immediate surroundings and being more successful in dealing with environmental demands. George (2000) observed that an emotionally intelligent person has the ability to understand the emotions of others and manage their moods in a social setting. This is in line with the statement of Robbins (2009) that when teachers understand the emotional state of their students, they may be more likely to convey a sense of efficacy, competence, optimism and enjoyment. Robbins further asserted that teachers who have high emotional intelligence are usually successful in the classroom. Teachers who have low emotional intelligence hardly understand students’ emotions and find it difficult to facilitate their learning and achievement. This implies that the level of emotional intelligence of a teacher may predict how he/she can understand the students and their environment and by implication the teachers’ instructional leadership. According to Hallinger (2000), emotional intelligence enhances instructional leadership by providing valuable information about practices needed to support teaching and learning. It enhances instructional leadership by creating a climate of support that thrives on interpersonal relationships. The author further stated that the ability of the teachers to identify and understand the emotions of students in the classroom manage their own and others’ positive and negative emotions, control emotions in the classroom effectively, utilize emotional information during problem-solving and express their feelings to others are important conditions that determine the forms of instructional leadership provided. Apart from emotional intelligence, another factor that may predict teachers’ instructional leadership in secondary schools is the locus of control.

           Locus of control according to Lefcourt (2000) is referred to as the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events and causes of their actions. This belief in turn guides what kinds of attitude, behaviour or model of leadership people adopt. The two loci as established by Lefcourt are the internal and external loci. Lefcourt stated that individuals who make choices primarily on their own are considered as having an internal locus of control.  Such individuals see themselves as the main cause of what happens to them and the success of the people they are leading. According to Perkins (2008), teachers with an internal locus of control are considered less susceptible to social influence; better information seekers; more achievement-oriented and better adjusted psychologically. Bush (2005) opined that individuals who exhibit high degrees of internal locus of control tend to be more assertive, confident and authoritative; and actively seek chances for achievement. Bush further maintained that this class of people have higher levels of job satisfaction; are more motivated in their work and encourage higher levels of participation in classroom work. This implies that teachers who have an internal locus of control are likely to be committed to their school work and demonstrate authoritative leadership for the achievement of educational goals. It also means that the more the internal locus of control of a teacher, the more the teacher engages the students in decision-making, innovation, undertaking projects, and leading rather than imitating the moves of competitors (Toulouse, 2002). According to Vanger (2006), some people have a predisposition to believe that they have more control over their environment than others. A teacher with an internal locus of control could view work-related challenges as opportunities to learn or advance.

 External locus of control is a belief of an individual who makes choices based on external forces or influence. Teachers who make decisions based on what others desire is said to have an external locus of control. Such teachers believe that the achievements of students in examinations and the future depend on luck, chance or the assistance of others. Sanders (2003) observed that people with an external locus of control may display an authoritarian or permissive model of leadership due to a lack of competence and dedication to duties. An individual with an external locus of control may find little meaning in the learning opportunity since it is believed that effort makes little or no impact on the learning situation. Under such teachers, students may not be committed to vigorously pursuing learning and the consequence may be a poor achievement.          

Gender is another factor which has been suggested to influence the instructional leadership model. It is the role ascribed to males and females by society. Richardson (2001) argued that one’s psychology, which may include one’s model of leadership, could be influenced by one’s gender. Ezeh (2013) stated that men and women flourish educationally when given the same supportive environment. According to Ezeh, it means that gender does not predict instructional leadership models. Therefore, one may wonder the extent teachers’ instructional leadership models could be predicted by the emotional intelligence and locus of control of teachers in Enugu State.

 

EDITOR SOURCE:  

Emotional Intelligence And Locus Of Control As Predictors Of Teachers’ Instructional Leadership In Enugu State, Nigeria

 

 

Consequences Of Deforestation On Rural Household Income

Introduction

Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stands of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include the conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees are cut down to be used or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form of charcoal) or timber, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities and settlements. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. It has adverse impacts on the biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.

Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions, the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labour, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.

Deforestation is a contributor to global warming and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions. In deforested areas, the land heats up faster and reaches a higher temperature, leading to localised upward motions that enhance the formation of clouds and ultimately produce more rainfall.

The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to a lower water intake for the trees to extract. Deforestation reduces soil cohesion so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue.

Background

Forests cover almost a third of the earth’s land surface providing many environmental benefits including a major role in the hydrologic cycle, soil conservation, prevention of climate change and preservation of biodiversity (Sheram, 1993). Forest resources can provide long-term national economic benefits. For example, at least 145 countries in the world are currently involved in wood production (Anon., 1994). Sufficient evidence is available that the whole world is facing an environmental crisis on account of heavy deforestation. For years remorseless destruction of forests has been going on and we have not been able to comprehend the dimension until recently. Nobody knows exactly how much of the world’s rainforests have already been destroyed and continue to be razed each year. Data is often imprecise and subject to differing interpretations. However, it is obvious that the area of tropical rainforest is diminishing as observed in the case of Odighi forest in Odighi Local government area of Edo State and the rate of tropical rainforest destruction is escalating worldwide, despite increased environmental activism and awareness. Deforestation is the conversion of forest to an alternative permanent non-forested land use such as agriculture, grazing or urban development (van Kooten et al, 2000).

Deforestation is primarily a concern for the developing countries of the tropics (Myers, 1994) as it is shrinking areas of the tropical forests (Barraclough et al, 2000) causing loss of biodiversity and enhancing the greenhouse effect (Angelsen et al., 1999). FAO considers a plantation of trees established primarily for timber production to be forest and therefore does not classify natural forest conversion to the plantation as deforestation (but still records it as a loss of natural forests). However, FAO does not consider tree plantations that provide non-timber products to be forests although they do classify rubber plantations as forests.

Forest degradation occurs when the ecosystem functions of the forest are degraded but where the area remains forested rather than cleared (Anon., 2010).

Thirty per cent of the earth’s land area or about 3.9 billion hectares is covered by forests. It was estimated that the original forest cover was approximately six billion hectares (Bryant et al 1997). The Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America and China were the most forest-rich countries accounting for 53 per cent of the total forest area of the globe. Another 64 countries having a combined population of two billion was reported to have forest on less than ten per cent of their total land area and unfortunately ten of these countries have no forest at all. Among these countries 16 are such which had relatively substantial forest areas of more 1than one million hectares each and three of these countries namely Chad, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Mongolia each had more than ten million hectares of forest. The forest area remained fairly stable in North and Central America while it expanded in Europe during the past decade. Asian continent especially India and China due to their large-scale afforestation programme in the last decade registered a net gain in the forest area. Conversely, South America, Africa and Oceania had registered a net annual loss of forest area (Anon., 2010).

Abstract

This study was intended to evaluate the consequences of deforestation on rural household income. This study was guided by the following objectives; to find out the causes of deforestation in Odighi in Edo state, to examine the consequences of rural household income, and to determine the strategies for reducing deforestation.

The study employed a descriptive and explanatory design; questionnaires in addition to library research were applied in order to collect data. Primary and secondary data sources were used and data was analyzed using simple percentages which were presented in frequency tables and percentages. The respondents under the study were 50 respondents including farmers, hunters and staff of the agricultural and forestry department in Odighi Edo state, Abuja branch. The study majorly focuses on the consequences of deforestation on rural household income.

The study findings revealed that deforestation negatively affects rural household income in Odighi Edo state; based on the findings from the study, efforts should be made by the Nigerian government and stakeholders in promoting tree planting and preservation.

EDITOR SOURCE: Consequences Of Deforestation On Rural Household Income