A CRITICAL STUDY ON ENZYMES

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Enzyme
Enzymes are large biological molecules responsible for thousands of chemical inter-conversions that sustain life (Smith, 1997). All known enzymes are proteins. They are high molecular weight compounds made up principally of chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, they are denatured at high temperature and precipitated with salts, solvents and other reagents. They have molecular weights ranging from 10,000 to 2,000,000 units. Enzymes do not cause reactions to take place, but rather they enhance the rate of reactions that would have been slower without their presence and still remains unused and unchanged.
Many enzymes require the presence of other compounds - cofactors - before their catalytic activity can be exerted. This entire active complex is referred to as the holoenzyme; i.e. apoenzyme (protein portion) plus the cofactor (coenzyme, prosthetic group or metal-ionactivator) is called the holoenzyme (Alexopoulos et al., 1996)
The living cell is the site of tremendous biochemical activity called metabolism. It is the process of chemical and physical change which goes on continually in the living organism involving the build-up of new tissues, replacement of old tissue, conversion of food to energy, disposal of waste materials, reproduction - all the activities that we characterize as "life."Thephenomenon of enzyme catalysis makes possible biochemical reactions necessary for all life processes. Catalysis is defined as the acceleration of a chemical reaction by some substance which itself undergoes no permanent chemical change. Synthetic molecules called artificial enzymes also display enzyme like catalysis (Grovesm, 1997).
The catalysts of biochemical reactions are enzymes and are responsible for bringing about almost all of the chemical reactions in living organisms. Without enzymes, these reactions take place at a rate far too slow for the pace of metabolism(Bairoch, 2000).
Enzymes actually work by lowering the activation energy of a reaction. This is achieved when it creates an alternative pathway which is faster for the reaction hence speeding it up such that products are formed faster. Enzyme catalysed reactions are million times faster than uncatalysed reactions, they alter the rates but not the equilibrium constant of the reaction being catalysed (Ashokkumar et al., 2001). A few RNA molecules called ribozymes also catalyse reactions, with an important example being some parts of ribosome (Lilley, 2005).
1.1.1 Types of enzymes
Metabolic enzymes: These have been called the spark of life, the energy of life and the vitality of life. These descriptions are not without merit. Metabolic enzymes catalyse and regulate every biochemical reaction that occurs within the human body, making them essential to cellular function and health (Sangeethaet al.,2005). Digestive enzymes turn the food we eat into energy and unlock this energy for use in the body. Our bodies naturally produce both digestive and metabolic enzymes as they are needed. They either speed up or slow down the chemical reactions within the cells for detoxification and energy production. The enable us to see, hear, and move and think. Every organ, every tissue and all 100 trillion cells in our body depend upon the reaction of metabolicenzymes and enjoy their energy factor. Without these metabolic enzymes, cellular life would beimpossible.
Food enzymes:These are introduced to the body through the raw foods we eat and throughconsumption of supplemental enzyme products. Raw foods naturally contain enzymes providing asource of digestive enzymes when ingested(Hossainet al., 1984). However, raw food manifests only enough enzymesto digest that particular food, not enough to be stored in the body for later use (the exceptionsbeing pineapple and papaya, the sources of the enzymes bromelain and papain). The cooking andprocessing of food destroys all of its enzymes. Since most of the foods we eat are cooked orprocessed in some way and since the raw foods we do eat contain only enough enzymes toprocess that particular food (Persike et al., 2002) our bodies must produce the majority of the digestive enzymes werequire, unless we use supplemental enzymes to aid in the digestive process. A variety ofsupplemental enzymes are available through different sources. It is important to understand thedifferences between the enzyme types and ensure that one is using an enzyme product which willmeet one’s particular needs.
Plant based enzymes:These are the most popular choice of enzymes. They are grown in a laboratorysetting and extracted from Aspergillus species. The enzymes harvested from Aspergillusspecies are called plantbased, microbial and fungal. Of all the choices, plant based enzymes are the most active. Thismeans they can break down more fat, protein and carbohydrates in the broadest pH range than any other sources (Ashokkumar et al., 2001).
1.1.2    Characteristics of enzymes
Protein nature:Enzyme is a protein. The main components of an enzyme is protein.
Temperature: Enzymes are sensitive to temperature. Many work best at temperatures close to body temperatures and most lose their ability to catalyse if they are heated above 60 or 70o C. (Ashokkumar et al., 2001).
Acidity and alkalinity:Many enzymes work best at a particular pH and stop working if the pH becomes too acidic or alkaline.
Catalytic effect:It acts as catalyst, enzyme functions in accelerating chemical reaction, but the enzyme itself does not change after the reaction ends.
Specificity:It functions specifically. The enzyme only catalyzes one kind of substrate and cannot function for many substrates. The term is called one enzyme one substrate.
Reversibility: It means the enzyme does not determine the direction of reaction, but it only functions in accelerating reaction rate until it reaches equilibrium. The enzyme also functions in substance synthesis and substance breaking down reaction.
Small quantity:It is required, in small amount. A small amount of enzyme is able to catalyze a chemical reaction (Nason, 1968).
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Enzyme
Enzymes are large biological molecules responsible for thousands of chemical inter-conversions that sustain life (Smith, 1997). All known enzymes are proteins. They are high molecular weight compounds made up principally of chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, they are denatured at high temperature and precipitated with salts, solvents and other reagents. They have molecular weights ranging from 10,000 to 2,000,000 units. Enzymes do not cause reactions to take place, but rather they enhance the rate of reactions that would have been slower without their presence and still remains unused and unchanged.
Many enzymes require the presence of other compounds - cofactors - before their catalytic activity can be exerted. This entire active complex is referred to as the holoenzyme; i.e. apoenzyme (protein portion) plus the cofactor (coenzyme, prosthetic group or metal-ionactivator) is called the holoenzyme (Alexopoulos et al., 1996)
The living cell is the site of tremendous biochemical activity called metabolism. It is the process of chemical and physical change which goes on continually in the living organism involving the build-up of new tissues, replacement of old tissue, conversion of food to energy, disposal of waste materials, reproduction - all the activities that we characterize as "life."Thephenomenon of enzyme catalysis makes possible biochemical reactions necessary for all life processes. Catalysis is defined as the acceleration of a chemical reaction by some substance which itself undergoes no permanent chemical change. Synthetic molecules called artificial enzymes also display enzyme like catalysis (Grovesm, 1997).
The catalysts of biochemical reactions are enzymes and are responsible for bringing about almost all of the chemical reactions in living organisms. Without enzymes, these reactions take place at a rate far too slow for the pace of metabolism(Bairoch, 2000).
Enzymes actually work by lowering the activation energy of a reaction. This is achieved when it creates an alternative pathway which is faster for the reaction hence speeding it up such that products are formed faster. Enzyme catalysed reactions are million times faster than uncatalysed reactions, they alter the rates but not the equilibrium constant of the reaction being catalysed (Ashokkumar et al., 2001). A few RNA molecules called ribozymes also catalyse reactions, with an important example being some parts of ribosome (Lilley, 2005).
1.1.1 Types of enzymes
Metabolic enzymes: These have been called the spark of life, the energy of life and the vitality of life. These descriptions are not without merit. Metabolic enzymes catalyse and regulate every biochemical reaction that occurs within the human body, making them essential to cellular function and health (Sangeethaet al.,2005). Digestive enzymes turn the food we eat into energy and unlock this energy for use in the body. Our bodies naturally produce both digestive and metabolic enzymes as they are needed. They either speed up or slow down the chemical reactions within the cells for detoxification and energy production. The enable us to see, hear, and move and think. Every organ, every tissue and all 100 trillion cells in our body depend upon the reaction of metabolicenzymes and enjoy their energy factor. Without these metabolic enzymes, cellular life would beimpossible.
Food enzymes:These are introduced to the body through the raw foods we eat and throughconsumption of supplemental enzyme products. Raw foods naturally contain enzymes providing asource of digestive enzymes when ingested(Hossainet al., 1984). However, raw food manifests only enough enzymesto digest that particular food, not enough to be stored in the body for later use (the exceptionsbeing pineapple and papaya, the sources of the enzymes bromelain and papain). The cooking andprocessing of food destroys all of its enzymes. Since most of the foods we eat are cooked orprocessed in some way and since the raw foods we do eat contain only enough enzymes toprocess that particular food (Persike et al., 2002) our bodies must produce the majority of the digestive enzymes werequire, unless we use supplemental enzymes to aid in the digestive process. A variety ofsupplemental enzymes are available through different sources. It is important to understand thedifferences between the enzyme types and ensure that one is using an enzyme product which willmeet one’s particular needs.
Plant based enzymes:These are the most popular choice of enzymes. They are grown in a laboratorysetting and extracted from Aspergillus species. The enzymes harvested from Aspergillusspecies are called plantbased, microbial and fungal. Of all the choices, plant based enzymes are the most active. Thismeans they can break down more fat, protein and carbohydrates in the broadest pH range than any other sources (Ashokkumar et al., 2001).
1.1.2    Characteristics of enzymes
Protein nature:Enzyme is a protein. The main components of an enzyme is protein.
Temperature: Enzymes are sensitive to temperature. Many work best at temperatures close to body temperatures and most lose their ability to catalyse if they are heated above 60 or 70o C. (Ashokkumar et al., 2001).
Acidity and alkalinity:Many enzymes work best at a particular pH and stop working if the pH becomes too acidic or alkaline.
Catalytic effect:It acts as catalyst, enzyme functions in accelerating chemical reaction, but the enzyme itself does not change after the reaction ends.
Specificity:It functions specifically. The enzyme only catalyzes one kind of substrate and cannot function for many substrates. The term is called one enzyme one substrate.
Reversibility: It means the enzyme does not determine the direction of reaction, but it only functions in accelerating reaction rate until it reaches equilibrium. The enzyme also functions in substance synthesis and substance breaking down reaction.
Small quantity:It is required, in small amount. A small amount of enzyme is able to catalyze a chemical reaction (Nason, 1968).

DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SENNA TORA LEAVES EXTRACT ON THE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS OF THE DIABETIC ALBINO RATS

Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which blood vessels of glucose (sugar) are high because the body does not produce or properly use insulin. There are two major forms of diabetes mellitus. Type 1 diabetes   develops when the pancreas does not produce insulin. Type 2 diabetes occurs when the body cell resist insulin’s effect (Microsoft Encarta, 2009). This condition leads to elevated levels of blood glucose. The normal range of blood glucose level for blood glucose level is between 70-110mg/dl. Insulin is a hormone that helps to maintain normal blood glucose level by making the body’s cell absorbs glucose (sugar) so that it can be as a source of energy. In people with diabetes glucose levels build up in the blood and urine causing excessive urination, thirst, hunger and problems with fats and protein metabolism because the body cannot convert glucose into energy, it begins to  break down stored fats for fuel. This produces increasing amounts of acidic compounds in the blood called ketone bodies which interfere with cellular respiration energy producing process in cells. Alloxan induces diabetes mellitus in rats. Alloxan, a beta cytotoxin, induces diabetes in a wide variety of animal species through damage of insulin secreting cell. In these animals, with characteristic similar to type 1 diabetes in humans. Hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia are common complications of diabetes mellitus.     (Rerup, C. C. 1999). Senna tora (originally described by Linne as cassia tora) is a legume in the subfamily caesalpiniodeae. It grows wild in most of the tropics and is considered a weed in many places. Its native range is not well known but probably South Asia. It is often confused with Chinese senna or sickle pods obtusifolia. If it is given a distinct common name at all, it is called sickle wild sensitive plant (nature serve, 200). It has a widely ranging tropical and the agro climatic conditions, which are conducive for introducing and domesticating new and exotic plant varieties. The use of the plants, plant extracts and pure compounds isolated from natural sources provided the foundation to modern pharmaceutical compounds. An ethno botanical search on fine species senna within and around Ogbomoso, Oyo state, Nigeria showed their relevance in the local herbal medicine. In the recent study, screening for hypoglycemic activity of the extract of senna tora was conducted to provide support for the use of this plant as traditional medicine. Phytochemical screening provides knowledge of the chemical constituents of this not only for the discovery of new therapeutic agents, but also for information in discovering new sources of other materials. The uses of senna tora include the following, used as liver stimulant, mild laxative, heart tonic, used in treatment of fever, used to treat eczema and dermatomycosis, etc.

1.  
1. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

Therefore the goal of the study is to:

•  To determining the blood glucose levels of normal and Alloxan induced diabetic rats.
•   To determine the effects of senna tora leaves extract on the blood glucose levels of the diabetic albino rats.
• To compare values before and after induction with Alloxan and senna tora leaves.

·         DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SENNA TORA LEAVES EXTRACT ON THE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS OF THE DIABETIC ALBINO RATS

THE EFFECT OF BANK INTEREST RATE DEREGULATION ON THE ECONOMIC GROWTH IN NIGERIA

THE EFFECT OF BANK INTEREST RATE DEREGULATION ON THE ECONOMIC GROWTH IN NIGERIA
CHAPTER ONE
1.0       BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The term interest can simply be define as the cost of using someone else money or viewed from the under point of view, as the price charged for allowing one to use someone else money. The role of interest is the reward for parting with liquid for a specific period of time.
The Nigerian Banking sector is among the most heavily regulated sector of the Nigerian economy. The special interest of government in the banking sector is due to its relevance in the provision of credit facilities of industries and most importantly the provision of soft loan for small scale businesses for development of economy in the country. As financial intermediary, banks help in channeling founds from surplus economics regions to the deficit one’s on order to facilitate business transaction and economic development in general. The real sectors economics are not left out in benefit found from the surplus spenders in the economy.
Anyonwu (1997) opined that, commercial banks encourage savings. Since investments are made out of savings, the establishment of commercial banks especially in the rural makes savings possible home economic development is accelerated.
Bearing in mind that funds are owned by other people (the investing public / depositor) the banking ethic demands that such funds should be efficiently and effectively managed in order to build and maintain the confidence of depositor investors in the banking system and also uphold the competence and continued soundness of the banking system to reduce drastically the risk or possibility of bank failure or distress.
The government most of ten may think its necessary to intervene in the operation of the banking system with the intention of correcting the short comings of the price fixing mechanism to ensure that what is commercially rational for an individual bank is appropriately rational for all socially interest rate charged by banks could be regulated to encouraged saving mobilization, ensure and faster adequate investment for rapid growth and development, bearing in mind the view of Goldsmith (1969) that the financial super structure of an economy accelerates the migration of funds to the best user i.e. to the place in the economic system where the funds yield the highest social return.
The opinion of Greenwood and Jovanoric (1990) clearly approximate the view of Goldsmith (1990). They stated that financial intermediation promotes growth because it allows a higher rate of return to be earned on capital and growth in turn provides means to implement costly financial structure.
According to Akiri and Adofu (2007), the exisitence of externalities and imperfection in the financial markets of most developing economics has often called for intervention by the government through its appropriate agent (the central Bank in the case of Nigeria) to encourage investment and to re-channel credit to those economic unity with high social race of returns but low commercial rate of returns
Under the deregulated interest rate system, the market forces of demand and supply plays a very prominent role in the determination of interest i.e to arrive at a suitable interest role on both deposit and loans.
Interest rate being cost of money, the government by deregulation interest intends to stop central on credit expansion by banks. If the cost of money is high, the business sector would not borrow and when they don’t borrow, it will go long way to reduce the inflationary tendencies associated with excess liquidity.
This study attempts to find the probate effect of bank interest rate deregulation on economic growth in Nigeria.
1.2       STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
 Generally, banking industry operate on a profit base mobilizing fund from surplus sectors and lending it to into deficit sector in which interest rate is being charged on both the bank usually paid sector but charges higher interest when they want to lend it into deficit sector in order to make profit for banks to fulfill this, care must be taken in lending in order to safeguard the profitability of such banks.
1.3       OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The study attempt to makes in-dept analysis of the effect of bank interest rate deregulation on the economic growth in Nigeria and thereby assess the effect of the charges in interests rates on saving through the structure and growth of bank deposit implication on the economic growth.
1.4       STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS
At the end of this research work, the following opinion will be tested. 
1.         Hi:       The high interest rate induces savings in banks
            Ho:      The high interest rate does not induces saving in banks
2.         Hi:       The high bank interest rates discourage customers from borrowing
            Ho:      The high bank interest rate does not discourage customers from borrowing.
This study will help the bank to know whether they should be more committed to increasing there changes on rate of interest and to know whether this will increase there customer patronage good will and profitability. To proffer policies, to determine the effect of lending policies on economy of Nigeria, to know the need for partial equilibrium analysis of bank deposit management to assess the effect of the changes in interest on saving through the implication of threat on the economy.
1.5       SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY
The researcher therefore, that by studying the pricing decision, it will be of benefit to the economy and individual alike, it will be of benefit to the economy in the sense that it will as to determine approximation compensation for labour used in production.
This study will equally enable firms to known how consumer perceive products, the reasons for the high and low price. In addition, the study will serve as reference point for future researchers relevance area.
1.6       DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY 
It is highly imperative to state categorically that this study paves way for others to further studies into areas that are not adequately covered by this researcher. Also there is room for further research into area cover by the researcher.
1.7       LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
Apart from the fact the writers intend to have detailed study of the above mentioned target area, writer is limited to these areas because of the following reason:
1.         Time: - It is indeed pathetic that the researcher have a very limited time to carry out the research therefore, the writer needs to manage the source that is available in order to finish the research within the allocated time.
2.         Financial Constraint: - The researcher would have loved to moved wider but this is not possible due to limited amount of money the researcher have, the researcher spirit all he could to make  this work successful.
3.         Inadequate date: - This research work will be limited to the volume of information acquired through materials like national dailies, periodic journals, text books, internet materials and write – up on related subject.
4.         Uncooperative Attitude of Respondents: - As it unduly know that banks are often busy. So questionnaire administrations were not answered very well because majority of the staff were occupied with the customers. This constraint might be regard as that of non-response during peak periods.
1.8       DEFINITION OF TERMS
Interest Rate: - An interest rate is the rate at which interest is paid by a borrower for the use of money that they borrow from a bank as loan or overdraft etc.
Deregulation: - Is the removal or simplification of government rules and regulations that constraints the operation of bank on interest rate for loan given.
Lending: - Is concerned with granting of credit facilities to customers.
Normal Interest Rate: - This is the interest on the face value or coupon rate in the case of loans floated as securities.
Real Interest Rate: - This is the interest adjusted for the effect of inflation. Real interest is only used in performance assessment.
Prime Lending Rate: - This is the rate banks lend to their first class loan risk customers. For other customers the lending rate will be higher, the difference representing a premium for risk under taken by the lender.
Interest rate Spread: - This is the differences between lending rate and borrowing rate.
Borrowing Rate: - Borrowing rate to a banker’s customer the “borrowing rate” i.e. bank’s lending rate.
CLICK HERE FOR OTHER CHAPTERS OF THE MATERIAL - THE EFFECT OF BANK INTEREST RATE DEREGULATION ON THE ECONOMIC GROWTH IN NIGERIA

EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF BEAM PUMP AND ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMP IN OIL PRODUCTION USING PETROLEUM SOFTWARE (PROSPER)

EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF BEAM PUMP AND ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMP IN OIL PRODUCTION USING PETROLEUM SOFTWARE  (PROSPER)

ABSTRACT

Today, Artificial lift optimization has become very important in petroleum industries. A proper lift optimization can reduce cost of production and maximize recovery from the asset. The purpose of artificial lift optimization is to obtain maximum output under specified operating conditions.

Optimization of Beam pump and electrical submersible pump is a continuous process and a critical one but the use of PROSPER program modelling made field work easy for petroleum engineers.

The total field optimization involve optimizing the surface facilities and injection rate which can be achieved by the use of standard tool softwares.

Well level optimization can be achieved by optimizing the well parameters such as point of injection, injection rate and injection pressure.

All this aspects have been investigated and presented in this study by using experimental data and PROSPER Simulation programs.

The result show that well head pressure has great influence on the performance of artificial lift. Artificial lift performance can also be improved by controlling the pressure and gas injection of the downhole.

Obtaining optimum gas injection rate is important because excessive gas injection reduces production rate and increases production cost.

CLICK THIS LINK FOR THE COMPLETE WORK - EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF BEAM PUMP AND ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMP IN OIL PRODUCTION USING PETROLEUM SOFTWARE  (PROSPER)