THE ROLE OF HEALTH INFORMATION MANAGERS IN HEALTHCARE DELIVERY SYSTEM

 THE ROLE OF HEALTH INFORMATION MANAGERS IN HEALTHCARE DELIVERY SYSTEM

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

            In the 21^st century - health is a shared responsibility involving a live of cooperating health professionals and a growing list of applied professional with afocus on the overall interest of the patient and society.

            We therefore urge the presidential committee to request from the would body and the perspectives of the progressive hold on the role research for each identified stakeholder in healthcare delivery.

            Healthcare is not the only, 10 even the strongest determined of health, but it is very important. Traditionally, healthcare has been delivered in what is best described as a multidisciplinary model of teamwork. In this each member of the healthcare team fulfilled a certain well defined and predetermined role with little or no overlap between the activities of team member. More recently this model has earned into one of interdisciplinary team care. Whereby, the members of the team work collaboratively together to help ensure optimum care and out comes (would health organization, 2002).

            Health information is essential for good healthcare – their quality depend on accurate and prompt documentation of care provided and regular analysis of contest.

            Good quality healthcare data play a vital role in planning, development and maintenance of optimal healthcare. Health information manager, (HIM) professionals are healthcare providers determined to the effective and efficient management of patient health information and healthcare data needed to declare high quality treatment and care to the patient. Healthcare is undergoing a fundamental shift from free-for-service to value base delivery and payment, creating increasing change in markets, financing and regulation. Reimbursement is deceiving and shifting to at risk contracting.

The impact of expanded healthcare access remain unknown.

But what everyone agrees on is that success in a value information across the care continuum. this is placing extraordinary pressure on legacy health information management model, and departmental infrastructure (Juan Bill 2014).

            Despite progress made in moving from paper to digital record. Health information management remains highly decentralized, for example. Health information management has historically manage health records, excusive of other records the facility level while the types of critical information and data (both clinical and operational continue to be managed at the department of functional level, without the benefit of enterprise reflecting best practices).

            Today, personally inventitiable health record data must be linked across the continuum exchange into a rage of providers and shared with patients. That means these additional sources of information need to be linked with electronic health record (EHR) data-with so may compartmentalized pockets of information it can be difficulty to identify and in turn integrate data from all.

 

1.2       STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

            It is generally observe that health information managers is facing many challenges that need to be considered and addressed in order for the progression to remain relevant, be responsible to change and continue to add value to healthcare system.

            The strength of health information managers depend on their academic level. The level on health information management professional attain in academic enable him or her to gain more knowledge in time profession because their strength tends to affect the quality of healthcare delivered.

            The issues and concerns in relation to health information managers efficiency in healthcare delivery system of not address leads to foot management and maintenance of patient health records, when equipment are not available, it affect the health information managers to function effectively.

            Training of health information managers and setting up of knowledge practice is one of the major problem fixed by professionals, when health information managers are retained while in service. It improved their knowledge level in the professional field.

 

 

 

1.3       OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

            The major objective was to investigate “The Role of Health Information Managers in Healthcare Delivery System”. While the specific objective is below:

i.                    To assess the strength of health information managers, and their academic level.

ii.                  To verify factors affecting the efficiency of health information managers in the health centre.

iii.                To examine the availability of equipment for effective and efficiency functioning of health information managers.

iv.                To evaluate the knowledge level of health information management staff (HIMs) in their practice.

 

1.4       RESEARCH QUESTIONS            

1.         What are the strength of health information managers in their academic      level in their profession?

2.         What are the factors affecting the efficiency of health information managers in the hospital?

3.         What are the equipment available for the effective and efficient functioning of health information managers.

4.         What are the knowledge level of it 1m through knowledge practice.

 

1.5       SCOPE OF THE STUDY

            The researcher aimed at the study “The role of health information managers in the health care delivery system”

A case study of University of Uyo Health Centre, in Akwa Ibom State. Data collection will be limited to the information gathered from the research instrument administered on the study population to assess, the importance of health information managers in the healthcare system.

The University of Uyo Health centre, Uyo started on

1.6       SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY    

            This study will be beneficial to the physicians, nurses, patient, researches, health information managers and other paramedical staff in the health centre.

TO PHYSICIAN/DOCTORS

i.        Doctors rely on complete and accurate data in order to make decisions about patient care because without complete historical information of a patient, treatment plans will be deficient to make.

TO THE NURSE

i.        It enable nurses track the patient coming to the health centre to know the health outcomes.

ii.      The information gotten from the patient records become the basis for evidence and knowledge to share health action.

TO THE PATIENTS

i.        To improved patient’s rarefy and quality treatment received by the patients in the health centre.

ii.      It also improved quality care and convenience of patient care given to the patients.

TO THE RESEARCHERS

i.                    It will serves as a references print to researchers for better option for pre-hospital care.

ii.                  It helps in planning or budgeting for future treatment option

TO HEALTH INFORMATION MANAGERS        

i.                    It will enable the health information managers recognized their responsibilities as been important in healthcare delivery system.

ii.                  It health them influence policies on how they want data to be collected, stored, retrieved, used and analyzed.

To other part-medical staff/the management

i.                    It enable the paramedical staff/the management to increase practice effectively and efficiency.

ii.                  It strengthened their capacity for critical statistical analysis because they understand the need for the local data.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

1.            The Role: The reaction or position that somebody is e to have in an organization, society or in a relation

2.            Health: Health can be defined base on World Health Organization (WHO) as the state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing of an individual not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

3.            Information: Information can be defined as one or more message that can control department in complained or guide the people who wove for them, managers must often make decisions about manager.

4.            Managers: A manager is a person who is in-charge or manage something department in an organization by making proper and better treatment of patient in the hospital.

5.            Effective: It simply means producing the result that of expected or intended.

6.            Care: This is the provision of what is necessary for the health, welfare maintenance and protection of patient in the hospital and providing what they need.

7.            Health Care: This is the maintenance or improvement of health survey the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease, illness, and other physical and mental impairments in patients

8.            Delivery: It is a set of attributes that characterizes the capability of the access mechanism, the preferences, of the upper and other aspects of the course into which a resource to be delivered.

9.            Health Delivery: This is the services reduced by members of the health profession such as (physician, nurses, pharmacists, health information managers, medical laboratory scientist etc.) for the statement of facts that the received by a human and that some form of work to the recipient.

10.        System: An organized set of ideas or theorize, or particular way or doing something.

11.        Management:It is the act a skill of controlling and making decision about a business, department etc.

12.        Health Information: It is a written document that contains the information of patient and are kept in hospital, comprehensive health centre and clinic for the effective treatment of the patients.

13.        Health Information Management: It is the practice of acquiring, analyzing and protecting digital and traditional health or medical information vital to providing amenity patient care.

14.        Health Information Manager: These are professions that are well trained in the skills and competences in health data management policy, information system, administration and clinical work flow.

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE:  the role of health information managers in healthcare delivery system

CHARACTERIZATION AND DISPOSAL OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

 CHARACTERIZATION AND DISPOSAL OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

 

 

 

 

In this modern era, one of the main challenges confronting environmental management is “municipal solid waste”, generated from different activities in towns and cities. It is a subject of deep interest for its proper management because improper management of municipal solid wastes (MSW) is one of the factors that cause water, air and soil pollution.

Industrialization, urbanization and modernization have contributed immensely to the rate of municipal solid waste production and disposal in many regions of the world; hence, proper waste management is a major interest in most cities, especially in developing nations of the globe (Zhen-Shan et al., 2009).Rapid upward changes in urbanization, population growth and lifestyles in developing countries contribute to increasing the per capita municipal waste generation. Keeping pace with these developments require commensurate growth in schemes to protecting the environment, to improving public health and accomplishing effective and efficient municipal solid waste management. This should be a priority, particularly, for cities in developing countries (Jin et al., 2006).

Any inhabitant of the world who goes back a decade realizes that his consumption changed both from the quantitative as qualitative point of view. This increase in the consumption keeps pace with the production of waste. Actually, the population growth coupled with an accelerated exploitation of the resources and the intensification of the human activities are several factors which explain the increase of the production of waste (Yemadjeet al., 2013). Every rise of 1% in population growth triggers an increase of 1.04% in production of waste (Beedeet al., 1995).

In every urban centre, large amount of solid waste is generated during various activities. These wastes are to be stored, collected, conveyed, processed and disposed off in an environmental friendly manner in order to keep the areas clean. The handling of waste has changed through the generations as our knowledge; technology of economic well-being has improved. As a necessary consequence of the production and the consumption of food, consumer goods and other products, our current society generates a substantial volume of waste materials; most of which are ultimately discarded and require collection, reuse or recycling, or disposal (Crineret al., 2011). Solid waste generation have raised concerns about the economic viability and environmental compatibility of recent waste handling systems, as not fulfilling requirements of adequately managing these wastes cause serious health hazards and nuisance (Gawaikar, 2006).

According to Tanaka (2006), solid waste generated has been predicted to rise continuously along with economic growth and development, if a lifestyle of bulk manufacturing, consumption and disposal is continued. The most obvious implication of urbanizing is the increasing generation of municipal solid waste - a deeply ignored threat with acute health and environmental implications. Local governments are desperate to find highly effective and practical techniques for enhancing solid waste management with limited budget. How to address the escalation in solid waste generation in this jet age has become an issue of necessitation. Solid waste materials block drainage systems, causing overflows during rainy seasons, especially in cities and towns. According to Foul et al. (2009), dumped solid wastes have potentials to bring about a huge amount of polluted leachate containing much concentration of harmful compounds which lead to severe destruction of the ecosystem.

Solid waste refers to undesired remains, residues, discarded items or by-products that are no longer needed for the initial use. Municipal solid wastes comprise of vegetable and market waste, glass, paper, plastic and other organic fractions and inert matter from various sources such as residential, commercial, and institutional areas. In other words, municipal solid waste - commonly known as “trash or garbage”(US),“refuse or rubbish”(UK), consists of everyday items discarded by the public including: product packages, food scraps, paper, metal, plastics, ceramics, textiles, leather, ashes and bones, rubber, coconut husk, used batteries etc. These types of wastes pose health and environmental menace when improperly managed.

In spite of the improved development of science and technology, solid waste management is still a serious environmental problem for most communities all over the world (Su et al., 2008). Municipal solid waste management is one of the most vital issues in the contemporary urban environments; especially in developing countries (Vikramet al., 2010).Waste disposal management continues to be a rising challenge to developing communities, as population grows along with the industrial development of countries. This problem has become quite hard to curb, especially in emerging countries, as human health is under threat, roadsides blocked by generated wastes. One of the reasons why this situation is so is that, “a negative relationship exists between population densities in cities and towns and rise in per capita waste generation, on one hand, and available waste disposal sites on the other hand” (Adjaottoret al., 2014).

According to Bartelings and Sterner (1999), the management of solid waste from households is important for two reasons:

·         Landfill space is becoming a scarce resource in many countries

·         More profound is perhaps the concern that ecological damage from hazardouscomponents even in the efficiently collected waste by the municipality will not automatically alleviate the concern about the spread of hazardous waste into the environment. In addition, according to Unites States Environmental Protection Agency, the various options of solid waste management include;

·         Source reduction and reuse (waste prevention)

·         Recycling and composting

·         Incineration (waste combustion)

·         Disposal in Landfills (that is, old and abandoned quarries and mining sites)

With an exponential increase of the production of waste worldwide, the question of waste begins by firmly raising the awareness in front of environmental and sanitary problems. In the more            developed countries, this issue is raised less. This is understandable by the fact that they have access to qualified financial and human resources which they dedicate to an effective management of waste. In these countries, waste is transported towards wastage places for valuation (Yemadjeet al.,2013).

Improper management of solid waste in most cities of developing countries leads to problems that impair human and animal health and ultimately result in economic, environmental and biological losses (Sharholyet al.,2007;2008) since landfill disposal and waste-to-energy(WTE) incineration remains the two principal options for managing municipal solid waste in most parts of the world(Moy et al.,2008).Leachate from municipalities’ landfills presents a potential health risk to both surrounding ecosystems and human populations(Salem et al.,2008). In addition, waste management activities are said to contribute to global greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 4%. In particular, the disposal of waste in landfills generates methane that has high global warming potential (Papegeorgiouet al.,2009).

Information pertaining to the composition of solid waste provides critical data for the development of waste management plans. Waste minimization can only be carried out efficiently and effectively with accurate waste composition data. Adequate waste composition data are needed to ascertain the impacts of certain types of waste and to determine the life of a landfill. Waste composition varies from time to time and from place to place, depending on seasons or weather conditions(Idriset al.,2004).All types of municipal solid wastes are collected and mixed together at community bins. It is quite demanding to keep a record of quantity of waste generation from areas. Hence, a primary requirement to help accomplish this is accurate and dependable information on solid waste characterization and quantification. It has been noticed that 60-75% of generated waste is disposed off at landfill sites; others are disposed off into drainages or along roadsides (Deshpandeet al.,2008).

Municipal solid waste disposal is an integral and the last phase of municipal solid waste management process which aims at discards solid wastes which are by-products of human and animal activities. Municipal solid waste management depends on both the disposal sites and the characteristics of the MSW such as: gross composition, particle size, moisture content, chemical composition and density (Endaluet al., 2014).

Solid Waste Characterization is a means by which collected waste samples are divided into different components such as decomposable or organic wastes (i.e. food wastes, grasses, leaves), rubbish (paper, plastic, metal, glass, textiles, etc) and ash residues(materials remaining from burning of wood, coal, coke, etc). Solid waste characterization study is fundamental to any proper planning of solid waste management in any community. It entails inquiring about how much solid waste are discarded in a waste stream. Waste characterization data assist in planning waste minimization schemes, establishment of recycling or reuse programmes, thereby minimizing money and resources (calrecycle.ca.gov,2015).

Waste characterization is a rudimentary concept in any Municipal Waste Management Scheme (MWMS) of urban solid waste, in a city, although such data are not gathered in many African cities (Guadalupe, 2009). Characterization of municipal solid waste is simply a descriptive means of identifying the various constituents of the waste stream in terms of quantity and quality generation, taking into account, the location and seasons in which these waste are generated. In other words, it is a means of finding out how much waste is discarded in a municipal waste stream.

Data on solid waste characterization are composed of information on the types and quantities of materials in the waste stream and are dependent on some factors like; food habits, cultural tradition, socio-economic and climatic conditions, etc. It varies not only from city to city, but even within the same city itself (Gawaikar, 2004). In addition, the composition and characteristics of municipal solid waste are influenced by factors such as the area (whether residential, institutional or commercial), economic level (variance between high and low income earning regions), seasons and climatic conditions (distinction in the population density during the year, tourist places, etc) as well as the tradition and norms of people residing or doing business transactions in the community. High-income earning communities usually produce more inorganic materials or rubbish (such as paper, plastics), whereas low-income earning regions produce more of organic waste. Incorrectly sited open solid waste disposal sites result in health hazards and depletion in the aesthetic beauty of many cities (Napoleon et al., 2011).

According to Gawaikar (2004), characterization of MSW assists in evaluation of the amount of waste generated in a particular region or area at a particular period of the year. This aids in identifying the trend of generation. It also enhances proper planning of solid waste management, estimation of the dimension and number of functional units and equipments required for waste management and the required resources for environmental protection and public health. Also, solid waste characterization is vital to ascertain its possible environmental impacts on nature as well as on the society at large (Alagmiret al., 2005). Municipal solid waste data are sometimes measured both in volume (m³ per capita per day), and in weight (kg per capita per day). Finally, effective management of municipal solid waste is very vital and could provide environmental benefits and sustainable development, as well as reduce adverse impacts on public health. To address both the earth’s dwindling resources and the growing mountains of waste, many countries have introduced statutory waste minimization and recovery targets to ensure judicious use of these resources. The general public does not make the link between the two and tend to be generally more concerned with the effect that waste has on the environment at large (Emery et al., 2007). For effective waste management system for sustainable development, premiums have to be placed on waste characterization studies, hence, the need to carry out this research in the university of Benin municipality.

1.2       PROBLEM STATEMENT

In the last few years, waste generated in the University of Benin has been on the increase due to the expansion of human activities as a result of increase in population because of high influx of newly admitted students from various parts of the country. University of Benin is an institutional area, hence, a municipality. There exists a poor status of municipal solid waste management programmes caused by inadequate financial and human resources as well as organizational inefficiencies with the municipal bodies; limited surveys conducted as regarding solid waste generation rate; limited data recorded, both on composition and quantity of generated municipal waste; poor handling and poor application of engineering-based technologies which are crucial for effective management of solid waste generated. Solid waste disposal has therefore become a major issue in the campus. In fact, poor state of solid waste management in the University of Benin is now not only and environmental problem, but also a social handicap. Among the problems existing in the fast-growing University of Benin, solid waste appears to be one of the most prominent in recent years. There is currently no organized waste disposal and management system, hence, solid waste is seen in huge heaps on any piece of unused land, around buildings, and in the open commercial centres. Living with solid waste littered around appears to be acceptable amongst people in the campus.

Also, policy makers in the waste management sector in the University of Benin municipality are faced with the problem of how to project and therefore fairly predict the amount and the composition of MSW that is likely to be generated in the near future in order to devise the most appropriate disposal strategy. The present scenario in which waste collection and management is from a central collection point to the main dumping site, is inefficient and not reliable.

University of Benin municipality has not yet developed its centre of hierarchy, as evidently shown by:

·         No incremental levels of waste reduction, recycling and reuse.

·         No technology-based waste management.

·         No specific basis of strategy to encourage movement up the hierarchy.

 

1.3       AIM

The purpose of this study is to assess the amount of municipal solid waste generated daily in the University of Benin community and characterize the municipal solid waste, so as to obtain a comprehensive data at the community level for use in setting the basis for planning, strategizing and implementation of a sustainable waste management programme at the University of Benin municipality to address some of the inefficiencies in solid waste management for sustainable development.

1.4       OBJECTIVES

This study seems to achieve the following objectives:

·         Collect solid waste samples from different areas of the school.

·         Evaluate existing solid waste generation rate.

·         Estimate the average daily generation rate (kg generated/capita/day).

·         Identify and categorize, in a systematic way, the waste fractions involved.

·         Estimate composition of waste samples by direct waste analysis.

·         Estimate the total waste arising.

·         Determine how socio-economic factors influence the quantum and type of waste generated.

·         Suggest practices that will improve effectiveness, efficiency, integration, accountability and optimize municipal solid waste management.

·         Suggest the best disposal method that will be needed for effective waste disposal in the school.

1.5       SCOPE OF WORK

This study centres on the following:

·         Solid waste generation and in-depth characterization of the waste from selected areas in University of Benin municipality and their current solid waste generation rate.

·         Analysis of the samples to determine the composition of solid waste in the different areas for seven days each.

The research questions of this study are:

·         What is average daily generation rate of municipal solid waste (kg/capita/day)?

·         How efficient is the waste management system in the municipality?

·         How can municipal solid waste management system be improved in the municipality?

·         Which of the socio-economic classes have the highest solid waste generation rate?

·         What is the best waste disposal method?

1.6       JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

The main problem facing policy makers in the waste management sector in most urban areas is their inability to make appropriate future predictions of the amount and the composition of MSW likely to be generated over a period so as to devise the most appropriate disposal strategy. The importance of reliable information on both the quantity and composition of municipal solid waste for the effective planning of waste handling infrastructure underscore the role this study may play. With the data, hopefully, some model structure can be developed to reasonably manage MSW in the locality where this work is being undertaken.

 

1.7       RELEVANCE OF STUDY

The findings of this study will help waste management authorities in the University of Benin community make more informed policy-related and strategic decisions in determining the most efficient waste management system in the local context in prioritizing disposal types, and in determining the measures needed to support the implementation of such initiatives.

Also, this study will shed more light on some benefits of waste characterization and proper waste management such as:

·         Enabling recommendation of the best disposal methods of the waste, hence, preventing health and environmental hazards.

·         Assisting in proper planning of waste management, and is an integral element involved in keeping our environment safe.

1.8       LIMITATIONS OF STUDY

Only University of Benin community in Benin-City will be considered as case study for the work. Other regions in Benin-City will not be considered. Also, this study is restricted solely to municipal solid waste, and not industrial waste, agricultural waste, mining and quarrying waste, bio-hazardous waste and radioactive waste. In addition, the following waste will not be included;

·         Gaseous or liquid waste.

·         Waste from construction, industries and unconventional units.

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE: Characterization and disposal of municipal solid waste

MANAGERIAL COMPETENCE AND TRAINING NEEDS OF POULTRY FARMERS

 MANAGERIAL COMPETENCE AND TRAINING NEEDS OF POULTRY FARMERS

 

 

 

 

Poultry farming is the practice of raising domesticated birds such as chicken, turkey, duck, geese, pheasant, guinea fowl etc. as a subcategory of animal husbandry for the purpose of producing meat and egg for food and other by-products such as droppings, feathers as raw materials for industries. Poultry refers to domesticated birds that are reared majorly for meat and egg and sometimes, other by-products. In Agricultural resource management study (ARMS) formally known as farm cost and returns survey (FCRS) poultry include oestriches and other game birds but most operation raise only one specie of poultry for single purpose e.g. farmers keep laying hen  to produce egg for human consumption or for breeding purpose. Some raise starter, pullets and others concentrate on raising chickens or turkey for meet production. (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1954).  
The three most common species of poultry are domesticated fowl, duck and turkey; few breeds of chicken are Andalusian, Orpintons which are made up of white, black and buff orpingtons, leghorns, Plymouth Rock etc. breeds of turkey include Norfolk turkey which is black with spotted white wing, Cambridge turkey, a bronze grey bird larger and leggier than the Norfolk. Breeds of duck; buff orpington duck, pelkin duck also known as the island duck, Australian spotted, American black etc. (Noris 2005). Since domestic fowl accounts for over 90% of the total number of poultry across the globe, more emphasis will be placed on domesticated fowl in the course of this study.
More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually all over the world as a source of food (poultry farming – wikiedia, 2011). This is attributed to the importance of poultry products in terms of its nutritional values such as quality protein, liquids, carbohydrate, multitude of vitamins, minerals, cholesterols and pigments (Izunobi, 2002). Research has shown that in Nigeria poultry as a source of meat supplies about 20% of the total meat needs of the nation. This is grossly inadequate when compared with that in developed countries like America where as at 1915,poultry enterprise was already existing in the yard of many homes of the rural and small town families (U. S. Department of Commerce).
Research has pointed out that in most part of Nigeria, poultry farms operate in a less equipped poultry houses under the care of less competent poultry farmers that are less concerned about the recent technologies that are relevant for the improvement of their poultry management and increasing the yield of their input. This is one of the major reasons why most developed countries in the world produce and consume higher poultry products than Nigeria. In the United States for instance, statistics has it that the estimate of egg consumption is 250 – 300 egg per head per annum, this is in contrast to Nigeria where the estimated egg consumption is 20-25 eggs per head per annum (Oluyemi and Robert, 2000). Therefore, there is urgent need for training poultry farmers in Nigeria as a whole and in Oshimili South Local government Area of delta State in particular in order to make up for this discrepancy. 
Training in simple terms refers to the imparting of specific skills, ability and knowledge through appropriate educational methodology to improve performance and efficiency of the trainee. Training is any attempt to improve current or future employee performance by increasing an employee’s ability to perform through learning, usually by changing the employee’s attitude or increasing his or her skills and knowledge. Training needs depends on lack or deficiency in skills. The need for training and development is determined by employee’s performance deficiency computed as follows
Training need = standard performance ­- actual performance. (Human Resources Management,2010). 
Training is basically classified into lectures and on-the-job training. Lecture is the kind of training that takes place off-site i.e. in classrooms or lecture halls. It is used because of its low cost and its capacity to reach many people at a time. It is referred to as a one- way training device and it is sometimes criticized as a training device. On-the-job training takes place at the place of primary assignment. It is most time used as a supplement for the off-site training since it is usually impossible to teach someone everything she needs to know at a location off-site.
Since training is so crucial in developing individual’s managerial ability, it may be referred to as the basis of economic development. Going by the quote by Thomas and portal, (1992) which says development is achieved through investing in human capital and raising the productivity capacity of the society, also the economist school of taught who viewed development primarily in terms of a nation’s relative prosperity, it is therefore of great need that the poultry farmers in Oshimili South Local Government Area of Delta State and those in Nigeria as a whole be assessed to determine whether they need training in order to increase their competence for better management of their farms.

 

 

EDITOR’S SOURCE: Managerial competence and training needs of poultry farmers in Nigeria