THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF DRUGS AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

 THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF DRUGS AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

The term drug is defined as any substance that when absorbed into a living organism may modify one or more of its physiological functions. The term is generally used in reference to a substance taken for both therapeutic purpose and abused substances (Kwamanga, Odhiambo&Amukoye, 2003). Globally and even regionally, drug and substance abuse is an ever expanding problem and is recognized as a threat with serious effects on people’s health, security, social-economic and cultural welfare. In Nigeria, students have consistently shown that there is considerable prevalence of

drug and substance use; with varying preference rates found for both overall and specific drug abuse (Abdulkarim, 2005). Some of these commonly abused substances include tobacco, Miraa (khat), bhang, alcohol, cocaine, mandrax and heroine (NACADA, 2006).

            Drugs pose a very big problem in the world today and it is ruining the lives of many millions of people both in adolescent and general population. The use of illegal drugs has spread at a high rate and has penetrated every part of the world. No nation has been spared from the devastating problem caused by drugs and substance abuse. Nigeria has not been spared either and in most cases it has been as a transit point of hard drugs especially through AkwaIbom. Trafficking of hard drugs into developing countries has not spared, Nigeria the drug consumption and dependence among secondary and college students and has led to unrest and consequently wide ranging destruction of life and property (Ngesu, Ndiku&Masese, 2008). Factors influencing students to drug use have been identified among them parental influence whereby it has been noted that children from homes where parents take drugs tend to imitate their parents’ behaviors and by modeling they start using drugs (Ngesu, et al 2008).

School factors can also influence students to drug use (Ngesu et al: 2008). How the school administration manages students’ affairs may lead to drug abuse, high handedness, lack of freedom and failure to address them generally creates stress, which can lead to abuse of drugs as depressors (Kingala, 2000). Unfortunately, across all continents in the world and throughout time, drug abuse among both the young and adult population has manifested itself in various forms.

It appears that drug abuse affects behavior and its effects on schools whose prevalence was assessed in this study, is a worldwide problem with no exception of Nigerian students. Use of drugs has led to many health problems in the youth, especially among the students. The youth experience many special problems and considerations. This is the period of adolescence which is full of many challenges such as stress of physiological and physical change, competition in school and life in general, generation gap, unjust and cruel world among other problems. Psychologically, the adolescents have serious developmental tasks to handle such as peer identification and individualization from their family. Sexual identification; societal and vocational; role identification and negotiating issues of authority power and independence are primary (Oketch, 2008).

            A report by United Nation Drug Control Programme (UNDCP, 1998) shows that 60% of student’s abuse drugs. A survey by National Council Against Drug Abuse (NACADA, 2006) shows that substance abuse is widespread. It affects the youth mostly although it cuts across all social groups. Many young people especially the unemployed have resulted to using drugs like heroin and cocaine which are injectables. This has been a major contributor to the spread of HIV/AIDS due to the fact that they share syringes. Other drugs like alcohol can lead to risky sexual behavior as they affect judgment and decision making. A drunkard is unable to assert himself or herself especially when it comes to saying no to unprotected sex thus resulting to exposures to sexually transmitted infections.

Research findings indicate that there is a direct linkage between drug and substance Abuse and HIV and AIDS prevalence (NACADA, 2006). According to Siringi and Waihenya (2001), 22% of secondary school students are on drugs and it has been found out that males have high exposure to Mira and inhalants than females. PovertyAlso encourages drug use among students due to absenteeism and idleness (Adelekan 1998). As a result of lack of school fees, with availability of and access to drugs in The village kiosks the idleness may in one way or another encourage high prevalence of drug use among students aged 14-24 years old. This study therefore investigated the causes and effects of drug and substance abuse among students in Nigeria.

1.2       Statement of the Problem

            It is evident that drug use and abuse is still a problem in Nigeria secondary schools despite the various measures taken to curb it. Drug abuse menace has strangled Youthful population both secondary school students and non-students reducing them to dummies, zombies and drooling figures as well as wasting their lives at the age which they are most needed in society (Ngesu, et al 2008). Although the youth have been educated on the dangers of the drug abuse, most of the secondary school students have little or no knowledge of how dangerous the vice is (Ngesu et al 2008). Although students are expected to be aware of the effects of drug abuse and commit themselves to their studies, the habit still exists.

            Although several researchers have preventive measures suggested, the researchers have not effectively led to the desired results of curbing the menace of drug and substance abuse in Nigeria secondary schools. This is because apart from the youth facing a lot of challenges as individuals, the family and society including the church and school have not come out wholly to initiate methods of helping the youngsters.

            There is always a conflict of interest on who has the upper hand in helping the youth. It was against this background that this study investigated the causes and effects of drug abuse among students in Nigeria and suggested pragmatic measures to effectively curb this menace.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

            The purpose of this study was to investigate the causes and effects of drug and Substance abuse among students in Nigeria.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The study was guided by the following objectives: -

i)                   To establish the extent to which parents’ sources of income influence the prevalence of drug and substance abuse among students in Nigeria.

ii)                 To determine how different location of schools influence the prevalence of drug and substance abuse among students in Nigeria.

iii)              To establish the extent to which school administration influences the

            Prevalence of drug and substance abuse among students in Nigeria.

iv)               To establish how peer pressure influences drug and substance abuse among students in Nigeria.

v)                 To make suggestions on how Drug and Substance Abuse can be minimized.

1.5       Research Questions

            This study was guided by the following research questions: -

i)                   To what extent do parents’ sources of income influence the prevalence of drug and substance abuse among students in Nigeria.

ii)                 To what extent does location of schools influence the prevalence of drug and Substance abuse among students in Nigeria?

iii)              To what extent does school administration influence the prevalence of drug and substance abuse among students in Nigeria?

iv)               How does peer pressure influence them on drug and substance abuse among students in Nigeria?

v)                 What measures can be taken to minimize Drug and Substance Abuse?

1.6       Significance of the Study

            This study sought to generate useful data on the causes and impact of drugs abuse on education in Nigeria. Therefore, the findings of this study may be useful in several, Ways: The Ministry of Education/National Board for Technical Education may use the study findings to find out ways of preventing drug and substance abuse through public enlightened campaigns in schools, promotion of awareness on the dangers of drugs and how they affect an individual, the family and the society at large.

            The government may put in modalities of strengthening the guidance and counseling Department in schools through taking the teachers for service teacher training courses. The findings may also be used to advocate that campaigns against substance use should be incorporated in schools with special focus on the adverse consequences of the substance use. Ultimately, the society will benefit from the findings of this study in creating a drug free society for social, economic and political development in line with sustainable development goals. The school principals may assist the students in identifying the sources of drugs so that they can take remedial measures. The guidance and counselling departments might be strengthened through appointment of trained and qualified counsellors to head the departments.

1.7       Limitations of the Study

The data collection technique was mainly the use of questionnaires which were used to obtain data from the respondents. There were chances that some respondents might have been unwilling to respond to the questionnaires. The researcher also narrowed down the research objectives to five factors which might, have been conclusive evidence as there are many other factors which are beyond the control of the researcher. Such factors may have included inadequate rehabilitation centers, breakdown of African culture, lack of parental influence, availability of pocket money and school related factors.

            There were a lot of funds needed to carry out a research so the researcher required a lot of money to research on the causes and effects of drug and substance abuse among students in Nigeria.

1.8       Delimitations of the Study

            The study was limited to Six (6)Technical College in AkwaIbom State, Nigeria. The findings in the study were used to generalize the percentage of students who engaged in drug and substance abuse.

1.9       Assumptions of the Study

            The study assumed that the respondents were honest, truthful and willing to give correct answers. The reasons for students’ high prevalence of drug abuse were also stated in the objectives of the study. Other factors had no negligible influence on the frequency of drug abuse among students. The researcher assumed that school heads would allow guidance and counseling teachers and students to participate and give correct data during the research. It was also assumed that drug abuse prevails in one way or the other in Nigeria.

1.10     Definition of Terms

            In this study the following terms were defined as:

Drug: Refers to any chemical substance which when taken into the body that can affect one or more of the body’s functions.

Drug misuse: Refers to the usage of any drug for any other purpose other than the recommended one.

Drug abuse: Refers to excessive illegal drug use and/ or legal drug use without a doctor’s prescription.

Drug tolerance: Refers to a state of reduced sensitivity of a drug to the body at given regular (normal) dose.

Substance abuse: Refers to harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances including alcohol and other illicit drugs to stimulate behaviour.

Drug dependence: Refers to repeated drug taking that usually results in tolerance, withdrawal and compulsive drug taking.

Parental influence: Refers to the role played by parents into the students’ drug use or against it.

Peer pressure: Refers to tendency to conform to the values and expectations of the peer group.

Adolescence: Refers to period between childhood and adulthood and characterized by physical and emotional changes.

Adolescent: Refers to a boy or girl between the ages of eleven and nineteen years. Also refers to as a teenager.

Legal/licit drug: Refers to a drug socially accepted and readily available.

Prevalence: Refers to the magnitude of drug use among a particular agepopulation.

School administration: Refers to managerial set ups in schools that may influence a non-drug user to start using illegal drugs.

Drug trafficker/peddler: Refers to a person who passes drugs to consumers.

Student: Refers to a male or female learner in form 1 -4 in public Schools in Nigeria.

 

 

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE: The Causes And Effects Of Drugs And Substance Abuse (A Case Study Technical College In Akwaibom State, Nigeria)

 

ARTHROPOD PREDATORS AND INSECT PEST CONTROL

ARTHROPOD PREDATORS AND INSECT PEST CONTROL

Arthropod species occur from below the soil surface to the tree canopy. However, only a small fraction are observed on a frequent basis because many are microscopic or hidden below ground or plant tissue.  Very few species are classified as pest. Whether they feed on plants or plant produce invade our homes, inflict painful bites or stings. Infect most insects and other arthropods are beneficial and serve a variety of important functions in the garden. The abundance of beneficial insects especially predators is often limited in urban landscapes because these environments typically are characterized by disturbance. Disturbance factors include use of pesticides and other chemicals, air pollution and wind-borne dust, all of which may increase mortality of beneficial arthropods. Residential landscapes often lack adequate amounts of essential resources such as food, nesting sites and shelter than enhance reproduction and survival of natural enemies. Some common strategies are employed to conserve them in residential landscapes and these strategies may help reduce insecticide use and improve plant health by enhancing natural control of arthropod pests.

        Because many arthropod pests are exotic the aim of classical biological control is to reduce pest numbers by reuniting old enemies through importation of predators from the area of insect pest origin. Lady beetles, green lace wings and spiders are familiar examples of predator arthropods inhibiting residential landscapes and gardens. In general, predators are larger than their prey, consume many prey items during their life time and feed on a broad range of species immature and/or adults may be predatory and often do not leave behind any evidence of attack.

        However, these arthropod predators often help to keep aphids, spider mites, caterpillars and other insect pests under control.

 

 

ABSTRACT

Insect pests are those insect species that are injurious or a nuisance. They cause injury or damage to crops in the field and grains in storage. Man and his domesticated animals are also attacked by insect pests. Arthropod predators belong to the phylum Arthropoda and are most times beneficial in the control of insect pests. Arthropod predators are members of the phylum Arthropoda which capture and feed on the prey. They are generally larger than their prey and kill or consume many prey during their life time. Examples of arthropod predators include the lady beetles, spiders, praying mantids, damsel bugs, lace wings, syrphid flies etc.  They can feed on insect pests like aphids, moths, mites, butterflies, brown plant hoppers etc. These arthropod predators have been very effective in some cases of biological control programes of insect pests. Examples include the use of the cocinellid beetle, Radolia cardinalis (a lady bird beetle) to control the cottony-cushion scale, Icerya purchasi (a scale insect) which was a citrus pest in carlifornia, U.S.A. also wolf spiders have been effectively used to control the rice pest (the brown plant hoppers) in Indonesia.

 

 

 

 

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE: The Arthropod Predators And Insect Pest Control

 

THE EFFECTS OF GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS ON JOB INSECURITY

 

THE EFFECTS OF GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS ON JOB INSECURITY

Nigeria is interlinked with the global financial system. The global financial crisis emanated from the economy of the United States in 2007 and later spread to other developed economies of the world in 2008 and subsequently transmitted in that same year to less developing countries, inclusive of the Nigerian economy .The global financial crisis further destabilized the economy of Nigeria, which was initially bedeviled with the challenges of economic instability, inconsistency in government policies, lack of transparency in the financial markets, corruption, political instability, high rates of poverty and unemployment amongst others. Government till date has been facing the effect of global financial crisis on the domestic economy. Nigeria a part of the global economy is bounded to face the micro and macro adverse effects of global financial crisis.

 

The global financial crisis started as a series of ineptitude in the financial markets, leading to credit and liquidity crises, which resulted into the fall of several giant financial institutions in conjunction with the loss of confidence in the banking sector. The crisis further spread to the real sectors, resulting to decline in the level of aggregate demand, economic retardation and job losses.  The pace at which the crisis transmitted to other countries regardless the level of their development has made people to term the menace as “global financial meltdown”, global economic meltdown” global credit crunch” etc.

A financial crisis often featured by credit crunch, which means a disorderly contraction in money supply and wealth creation ((Obadan, 2008). A credit crunch occurs when participants in an economy lose confidence to have loans as well as recall existing loans. The great depression occurred after a dramatic expansion in debt and money supply in 1920’s. Then, a contraction also took place between 1929 and 1933 as debt was defaulted upon further resulted into a huge decline in the supply of money.

 

The origin of the global financial crisis is traceable to rapid risky debt accumulation. The transmission of the crisis across the globe is due to the fact that the world economy has become increasingly interlinked as a result of the forces of globalization, operating through the network of global economic and social linkages (Onudugo, 2009; Onyukwu, 2009).  The domestic economy is connected to the rest of the world economy through three markets: product market, factor market and assets market (money and capital markets). The rest of the world and the domestic economy access the world economy through these three markets.

 

Although, the global financial crisis is caused by the credit crunch in the United States, it has spread to almost all countries’ economies through trade and financial linkages and the implications such as job insecurity and retrenchment, reduction in foreign development and oversea development assistance, increased impoverishment, declined revenue amongst others, have been found to be uniform in the economies affected by this crisis.

1.2    STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS

The impact of global financial crisis on the Nigerian economy is multisectoral, as it cut across all sectors of the Nigerian economy. The global financial crisis resulted into depreciation of the naira, declining capital inflows, capital market collapse, divestment by foreign investors, decreased profitability and turnover of various firms. These negative impacts weakened the efficiency of the banking sector and gave rise to stock market crash, which undermined the confidence of the banking sector.

 

The global financial crisis led to a decline in the level of gross domestic product, consumer spending, consumer demand and industrial output. Unemployment rates rose as firms were no longer able to pay salaries. The price of crude oil fell from a peak of $147 per barrel in 2007 to $33 per barrel in December, 2008, given the fact that Nigeria solely depended on oil during that period. The dramatic decline in price of oil resulted into a sharp drop in the revenue generated by the Nigerian government due to the fact that oil contributes over 90% to revenue, over 85% to foreign exchange earnings and about 33% to GDP as at time frame.

 

The Nigerian economy was bedeviled with series of global financial disasters. The purchasing power of the people was eroded as the prices of commodities sky-rocketed and the living standard of the populace dwindled.  Major businesses, firms and companies winded up, inflation and unemployment rates were increasing out of control, food scarcity existed and the prices of stocks defied the predictions of the bookmakers.

 

The global economy was in recession as the gap between global economic potential growth and the actual performance widens in 2009, especially in the first quarter of that year. Many families were rendered homeless, many people were rendered jobless and peoples’ aspirations were killed.  This crisis penetrated among different economic agents across the countries.

 

1.3    OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of the study is to examine the impact of global financial crisis on job insecurity in Nigeria. Other sub- objectives of the study are:

1.      To examine the causes of global financial crisis in Nigeria.

2.      To ascertain the effects of global financial crisis in Nigeria.

 

1.4    RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Based on the objectives stated above, the study attempts to provide satisfactory answers to the following research questions.

1.      To what extent did global financial crisis impact on job insecurity in Nigeria?

2.      What are the causes of global financial crisis in Nigeria?

3.      What are the effects of global financial crisis in Nigeria?

 

 

1.5    RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

In accordance with the objectives of the study, the following hypotheses were formulated.

 

Hypothesis 1:

H₀:     Global financial crisis has no significant impact on job insecurity in Nigeria.

H₁:     Global financial crisis has significant impact on job insecurity in Nigeria.

 

Hypothesis 2:

H₀:     Consumption-driven economy, poor savings, high credit culture, huge financial outflow, inadequate regulatory framework for financial institutions, High cases of fraud and corruption are not causes of global financial crisis in Nigeria.

H₁:     Consumption-driven economy, poor savings, high credit culture, huge financial outflow, inadequate regulatory framework for financial institutions, High cases of fraud and corruption are causes of global financial crisis in Nigeria.

 

Hypothesis 3:

H₀:     Oil glut, decline GDP, collapse of capital markets, reduced foreign direct investment, decreased living standard, unemployment, increased poverty and inflation are not effects of global financial crisis in Nigeria.

H₁:     Oil glut, decline GDP, collapse of capital markets, reduced foreign direct investment, decreased living standard, unemployment, increased poverty and inflation are effects of global financial crisis in Nigeria.

 

1.6    SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study examined the impact of global financial crisis on job insecurity in Nigeria. Since Nigeria is part of the global village, it therefore necessitates that whatever happens in the Western world especially the developed economies will surely affect the Nigerian economy.

 

The study through the findings will enable Nigeria to think globally and act domestically to maximize the benefits of globalization and minimize its inherent costs and challenges. It is no doubt the study will be useful individuals, firms, financial sectors, private investors, stakeholders in the Nigerian economy, telecommunication sector, foreign investors, government  and many others on how to formulate sound policies that will offset the adverse consequence of prospective domestic, continental and global financial crisis.

 

1.7    SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study examined the impact of global financial crisis on job insecurity in Nigeria by prioritizing on ECOBANK PLC as case study.

 

 

 

1.8    LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Three limitations were encountered in the study namely time constraint, financial constraint and disposition of respondents.

 

The time allocated to conduct the study was relatively short combined with other academic commitments of the researcher.

 

Due to limited fund, the researcher was unable to increase the coverage of the study by considering other firms in different economic sectors of the Nigeria economy.

 

The attitude of the respondents, who were employees of ECOBANK, was not remarkable. Few of them were reluctant to participate in the survey. Some of them were diplomatic in answering the questions because they felt they might disclose the secrets of their organization.

 

1.9    METHODOLOGY

For the first research question; two models were developed namely pre-global financial crisis period (2003-2006) and post-financial crisis period (2008-2011).  Job insecurity proxied by the number of employees that were retrenched in ECOBANK was adopted as the dependent variable and global financial crisis was proxied by the profitability and turnover of ECOBANK. Plc was taken as the explanatory variables.

 

Data on these 3 proxy variables were sourced from the Bank at their head office. Regression analysis was employed to estimate the impact of global financial crisis on job insecurity.

 

For the second and third research questions, well-structured questionnaires were administered to the employees of ECOBANK to seek their opinions on the causes and effects of global financial crisis in Nigeria. The Chi-Squared Technique was then adopted to test the hypothesis on the causes and effects of global financial crisis in Nigeria at 5% level of significance.

 

1.10  DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Financial Crisis: This refers to a sudden drop in the value of financial assets or firms managing those financial assets.

 

Economic Crisis:  This refers to the sudden negative downtrend of events in the economy.

 

Economic Recession: This refers to the decline in the growth of the gross domestic product between two consecutive economic periods. It is characterized by drop in trade and industrial activity in an economy.

 

Economic Meltdown: This refers the slow-down in economic activities that started in USA and spread all whole over the world between 2008 and 2009.

 

Job Insecurity: This refers to the condition where employees lack the assurance their jobs will remain stable from day to day, week to week and year to year.

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE: The Effects Of Global Financial Crisis On Job Insecurity In Nigeria

EVALUATION OF HEALTH STATUS AND ITS CORRELATES AMONG FARMERS

 EVALUATION OF HEALTH STATUS AND ITS CORRELATES AMONG FARMERS

 

 

 

 

Health is a level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living being (Asenso, 2011). In humans, it is the general condition of a person in mind, body and spirit, usually referred to as being free from illness, injury or pain. The World Health Organization (WHO 2006) defined health in its broader sense as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2004) health is a state of being hale, sound or whole, in body, mind or soul, especially the state of being free from physical disease or pains. Health is more than not being sick. It is a resource of everyday living. It is the ability to realize hopes, satisfy needs, change or cope with life experiences and participate fully in the society (WHO, 2004). In essence, health status is the current state of individuals’ health which includes the wellness, fitness and any underlying disease or injuries (WHO, 2011).

 Evaluation is a judgment about how good, useful or successful something is. According to Ogunyinka (2014), evaluation is said to be the systematic collection of information about activities, characteristics and outcome of programmes to make judgment about the programme, improve programme effectiveness and or information decisions about future programme. Assessment of health status is important in that it enables individuals to be sensitive to changes in their health and serve to discover disease harbingers before its symptoms arise and before clinical examinations are made (Erengin and Dedeoglu, 2007).

Correlates of health status are the determinants of health status. A situation where two or more things are closely related or connected to each other or one causes the other (Murray, 2009). Health status can be influencedby factorssuch as: weight, nutrition, agility and flexibility or ability to move, smoking, alcoholic consumption, caffeine consumption, compliance with prescribed medical treatment,physical activity, diet etc. (Ugwu, 2006). National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2011) reported that many factors combine together to affect the health of individuals and communities. Whether people are healthy or not, is determined by their circumstances and environment, genetics, income and education level, relationships with friends and family. All of these have considerable impact on health, and more so, commonly considered factors such as access and use of health care services have much impact on health status.

Donald (2006) posited that the importance of health as a form of human capital cannot be overemphasized, that good health and productive agriculture are important pairs in the economy of any nation especially in the fight against poverty. He further postulated that good health enhances work effectiveness and the productivity of an individual through increase in physical and mental capacities. On the other hand, health impairment or illness can affect the ability of people to perform essential tasks and can bring severe distress or even destitution to families.  Poor physical, mental or even social health impacts negatively on individuals irrespective of their occupation, and this may be particularly worse on farmers and their dependents.

Agriculture is one of the most important drivers toward poverty reduction and the bedrock for economic growth, especially for the billions of people in developing countries. In agriculturally based countries, the sector generates on average, 29% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs 65% of the labour force (World Bank, 2007). Three quarters of the world’s poor live in rural areas, particularly in Asia and Africa, and depend on agriculture as their primary source of livelihood (Ravallion and Jinadu, 2007). The World Bank (2007) suggested that, GDP growth originating fromagriculture is at least twice as effective in reducing poverty as GDP growth originating outside agriculture.   Studies based on cross country estimates found that agricultural growth contributes significantly to reducing poverty and hunger, and added that poverty is the world’s most ruthless killer and greatest cause of suffering. However, the way agricultural productivity contributes to development varies across countries depending on the extent to which it is a source of economic growth and what percentage of the rural poor are strong and healthy enough to engage in agricultural activities. The linkage between agriculture, health and nutrition is bi-directional, and so health and nutrition also affect agricultural systems (Asenso, 2011). Good health is an asset for agricultural production, as healthy people can produce more and good nutrition contributes to it. Conversely, agriculture is an asset which contributes to good health and resilience, when both health and agriculture thrive, a reinforcing cycle of health can result, but when either suffers, the cycle becomes one of lowered agricultural productivity and lowered health status (WHO, 2010). According to ILO, (2004), the agricultural sector is one of the most hazardous to health worldwide. Agricultural work possesses several characteristics that are risky to health such as exposure to harsh weather, close contact with wild animals and plants, contact with agrochemicals, difficult working postures and lengthy hours, and use of hazardous agricultural tools and machinery. It is also stated that, agricultural development and practice can exacerbate the occurrence of disease vectors and parasites. More so, some agricultural practices have the effect of encouraging breeding grounds for disease vectors causing a real clash between the interest of food producers and health.

According to FAO(2006), more than 850 million people face acute food insecurity and hunger on yearly basis, 80% of these live in rural areas. This could be partly as a result of the difficulties farmers face in agricultural production such as land tenure system, insufficient capital, high cost of labour and machinery, poor processing and storage facilities etc.Many small-scale farmers are unable to produce sufficient quantities of food, even for self-consumption.As pointed out by the World Bank (2007), illness and death from HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and other diseases reduce agricultural productivity through the loss of labour, knowledge of productive adults, and assets to cope with illness.When disease afflicts farmers, their productivity is reduced and they remain in poverty, the effects fall back on the nation at large.

Poor health brings hardships to households including debilitation, substantial monetary expenditures, loss of labour and sometimes death. Poor health lessons the farmers’ ability to innovate, experiment, and operationalize changes in agricultural systems. For instance, “a farmer who is ill cannot attend FarmerFieldSchool or interact with extension officers to learn about new technologies and improve practices, and so may lack the knowledge to innovate (Croppenstedt and Muller, 2010). Health also affects agricultural output, particularly its demand. Antle and Pingali (2010) asserted that malnutrition and disease patterns influence market demand for food-quality, quantity, diversity and the price people are able and willing to pay. More so, health status of adults affects the duration of labour force participation and their intensity of work effort. Poor health will result in a loss of days worked or reduce workers’ capacity, and is likely to reduce output.A research carried out in Ethiopia by Croppenstedt and Muller, in 2010 estimated the impact of health and nutritional status on efficiency and productivity of cereal growing farmers. The results showed that, healthy farmers were found to produce more cereal per unit inputs, earn more income, and supply more labour than farmers affected by sickness.

Nutritional inadequacy impairs the ability of people to perform biologically (diminishing strength and endurance) and this in turn affects working capacity.  Most of the rural poor are engaged in moderate or heavy physical work so that the negative impact of poor nutrition on performance is particularly severe for them. In 1978 the World Health Organization (WHO, 1995) adopted the “Global strategy of Health for all by the year 2000”, this action regarded health as a basic human right.  It stipulated that “all the people in all the countries of the world should have at least such a level of health that they are capable of working productively and participate actively in the social life of the community in which they live.   The aim was to ensure that all peoples have adequate access to safe water, sanitary facilities, immunization against major infections and local health care, yet many nations including Nigeria could not meet the year 2000 deadline of “health for all”.

In AkwaIbomState, the problem of poor agricultural productivity is quite challenging, (Ekong, 2006) as most farmers are involved in subsistence farming and their ages are advancing. Like any other occupation, farmers are exposed to hazardous conditions such as poor tools handling, routine contacts with various chemicals, and gas emissions from chemicals/ grain storage rooms, long working hours, exposure to extreme temperature (Akwa Ibom State Ministry of Agriculture, 2008). Apart from this, farmers in Akwa Ibom State are faced with most common diseases such as malaria, diarrhea, typhoid fever, rheumatism, measles, tuberculosis, pneumonia, arthritis, chicken pox, injuries, cuts, and more recently HIV/AIDS which in many cases will lead to excess expenditure on health care services and of course unexpected or premature death among farmers (Ekong, 2006),

Farmers are subjected to sprains, pains, fatigue, stress of financial losses and uncertainties, intensified farm pressures, natural disasters and intergenerational conflicts. In many cases, these farmers may not really know the root or the way out of their health problems and as such may attribute it to evil forces (Udoh and Umoren, 1997). On other occasions, they may try to remedy their health problems through the use of local herbs which if care is not taken; may end up worsening the problems.

 

1.2       Statement of Problem

International health development drivers like UNICEF and WHO observed that health conditions of the people in many developing countries are still unsatisfactory, and in many instances, the health status of their populations remain below that of the dwellers in other developed countries (WHO, 2011).Nigeria as a developing country has a vast growth in population both in urban and rural areas (Ojo and Iniodu, 2000). It is further observed that increasing population has a significant effect on increasing demand for increase in food production by the citizenry. But the occupational environment for the agricultural industry present a wide variety of hazards to its workers including exposures to poisonous chemicals, noise, organic dust, psychological stress and medical and physical traumatic injuries (National Safety Council, 2011).   For instance, the World Health Organization estimates that 40- 50% of the world’s population are at health risk related work (exposed to physical, chemical, biological, psychological and ergonomics hazards) and that there are approximately 157 million new cases of occupational work-related diseases each year. This is attributed mainly to injuries sustained from the use of new technology, use of unsuitable imported machinery and poor working conditions (especially in agriculture and small-scale enterprises). The different types of injuries include amputations of limbs, eye injuries, and respiratory diseases, pesticide poisoning and musculo-skeletal disorders.  This is estimated to amount to an economic loss of 10-15% GNP in developing countries (WHO, 2010).  The health and safety of farmers are vital not only for themselves but also for the entire nation, after all without a safe production process, without safe producers, there cannot be safe consumers.

 Ekong (2006) opined that most farmers still suffer from diverse diseases such as malaria, typhoid fever, rheumatism, tuberculosis, arthritis etc as a result of poor nutrition, hazardous nature of agricultural work, and poor usage of working equipment.There isa high level of redundant or unemployed farmers, reduction of farm labour and abandonment of many farming activities (Udoh and Umoren, 1997) all linked to health status of farmers in the state.Disease deprives countries, communities and households of their strongest, most productive people. It strips away assets of all forms: human, financial, social, physical and natural including its effect on ability of households to acquire enough nutritious food for members to lead active, healthy lives, exorbitant health care cost, labour shortages, declining asset base, breakdown of social bonds, downgraded crops, and loss of livestock.  According to Akpabio, (2005) diseases lead to increase in dependency ratio due to the rise in the number of dependents relying on a small number of productive family members.

The Government of Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria has made numerous efforts toward the provision of health care facilities and services to its population. Notable among them are the expansion of medical education, improvement of public health care services, and provision of Primary Health Care (PHC) centers across the state(Akwa Ibom State Ministry of Agriculture, 2008). Despite the observed concerted efforts made by the Akwa Ibom State Government on improving health care of the dwellers, it would be pertinent to ask,“What is the health status of farmers in the rural areas”. With uncertainties in respect of empirical facts on health status index of Akwa Ibom farmers by extension non-urban dwellers, there is the need to evaluate the health status of the farmers, ascertain the correlates of health status, also the extent to which health status can be influencedby the correlates, and assess the effect of ill health on farming activities. Against this background the following questions became pertinent: what are the socioeconomic characteristics of the farmers in the study area?What is the health status of farmers?What is the health status profile?What are the correlates of health status? What are the effects of ill health on farming activities?

 

1.3       Objective of the Study

The general objective of the study is to evaluate the health status and its correlates among farmers in AkwaIbomState. The specific objectives of the study are to:

(i)         Identify the socio-economic characteristics of farmers in AkwaIbomState

(ii)        Assess the health status of farmers in the study area

(iii)       Analyze the health status profileof the farmers in the study area

(iv)       Ascertain the correlates of health status of farmers in the study area and

 (v)       Assess the effect of ill health on farming activities in the study area.

 

1.4              Hypothesis of the Study

The hypothesis of this study was stated in the null form as follows.

There is no significant relationship between the health status of farmers and its correlates (nutrition, and food security, exposure to harsh weather, alcohol and caffeine consumption, use of safety measures, housing condition, compliance to medical prescription etc) in the study area.

 

1.5              Significance of the Study

Agricultural production and functional health status are primarily factors that relate with each other. This study evaluated the health status and its correlates among farmers in Akwa Ibom State. It is expected that the results of this study will be of immense value to farmers in their farming communities, policy makers, extension agents, government and to the country at large. The study will enable government not only to focus policies on development of agricultural technologies but also make policy for increased income to boost food security, enhance health status and expand the welfare basis for rural communities. Furthermore, it will serve as a guide to development programming oriented non-governmental organizations (NGOs) on preventive measures which farmers should adopt in order to prevent or reduce health risks, and then see the need to change to safer agricultural practices. The study will enable scientists develop preventive measures and surveillance systems for health problems. Finally, this study will assist researchers to study on a broader correlation between health status of farmers and farm labour productivity. This will go a long way towards boosting agricultural productivity and sustainable development.

 

EDITOR SOURCE: evaluation of health status and its correlates among farmers