THE EFFECT OF COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION

 THE EFFECT OF COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION AMONG RURAL FARM HOUSEHOLDS

 

 

 

 

Nigeria as a land filled with milk and honey suffers from the menace of poverty. Different questions have been asked to how poverty which is affecting the economy can be reduced to minimum. Several Government bodies have been setup to find a lasting solution to the problem striking the masses. However, it will be expedient to know what poverty is all about and to know the meaning of cooperative according to different scholars and join the two together to have a clearer understanding of the purpose of the study.

According to Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, Poverty is a state of being poor. It is the inability of a household to generate adequate income for the maintenance of the household.

Poverty has become a pervasive National and Global issue resulting from a state of short or long term deprivation and insecurity in basic human needs (Chambers, 1996; Mullen, 1996;Obadan, 2002). Poverty has also become a feature of the living conditions and life situation of the vast majority of Nigerians. The incidence of poverty in Nigeria was put at 28.8% in 1980, 46.3% in 1985, 42.7% in 1992 and 65.6% in 1996. In 2008, estimates from the National Bureau of Statistics put incidence of poverty at 54.4% (Fakoya, Banmeke, Ashimolowo, Fapojuwo2010). Several evidences have suggested that majority of the world’s poor live and work in the rural area and that they would continue to do so in 2025 (IFAD, 2001).

(Oseni, 2007) defined poverty as a state of involuntarily deprivation to which a person, household, community or nation can be subjected to poverty is a condition in which one cannot generate sufficient income required to secure a minimum standard of living in a sustainable pattern. Poverty in Nigeria is caused by lack of employment, high rate of illiteracy among the citizenry, poor infrastructure, inadequate access to micro credit facilities, mismanagement of public funds, bad governance, instability of the governments and its policies. Poverty gives rise to many other serious social problems, some of which, not only impose enormous economic and social costs upon the non- poor and society in general, but also threaten the survival and stability of the society. In these regards, the Federal Government of Nigeria had designed several programmes aimed at alleviating poverty and improving the living conditions of its people which include Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), Green Revolution, Structural Adjustment Programme, Better Life Programme and Family Support Programme, National Directorate of Employment (NDE), Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) and National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS). These programmes bythe various governments of Nigeria were designed by policy makers and targeted at poverty alleviation in Nigeria. Unfortunately, the quality of life of majority of Nigerians had remained unenviable and embarrassingly low, despite the huge budgetary allocations by these governments to these poverty alleviation programmes (Orji, 2005). There is a need to identify other means of addressing the serious damage caused by poverty to the Nigerian society, attention should therefore be shifted to the use of self-help using Cooperative organizations formed and administered by the people.

Cooperatives have been dedicated to conducting business in a way now being recommended as the most effective route to transformational development: putting people in charge of their own destinies and helping them bring services to their communities; increasing decision making, trust and accountability through democratic participation; providing a profitable connection to the private sector; building and protecting assets at the community level; limiting the role of government; and working together to resolve problems.

A co-operative is an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, as well as cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise (COPAC, 1999). A Co-operative is a group-based and members-owned business that can be formed for economic and social development in any sector (Ohio Co-operative Development Centres (OCDC) 2007). According to DFID (2005), co- operatives have four main characteristics: first, they are formed by groups of people, who have a specified need or problem. Secondly, the organization is formed freely by members after contributing to its assets. Thirdly, the organization formed, is governed democratically in order to achieve desired objectives on equitable norms, and fourthly, it is an independent enterprise promoted, owned and controlled by people to meet their needs. Cooperatives provide self-employment through millions of worker-owners of production and service cooperatives; financial cooperatives mobilize capital for productive investment and provide people with secure institutions for the deposit of savings; consumer cooperatives provide households with affordable goods and services reducing the proportion of income used for basic living costs, and similarly user-owned cooperatives such as housing, utility, health and social care cooperatives provide affordable access to basic services.

Cooperative as socio-economic institutions through their activities could be a potent tool for poverty alleviation particularly in fighting poverty and unemployment. This could be in the area of agriculture, provision of infrastructural facilities and education.

Therefore, in Yewa Division where the research was carried out, the activities that was conducted is to know the impact of cooperative societies in alleviating poverty among rural households.

 

 

EDITOR’S SOURCE: Effect Of Cooperative Societies On Poverty Alleviation Among Rural Farm Households

THE EFFECT OF MOTIVATION OF LABOUR, COST AND PRODUCTIVITY ON NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

 

THE EFFECT OF MOTIVATION OF LABOUR, COST AND PRODUCTIVITY ON NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY (A CASE STUDY OF MARLUM CONSTRUCTION COMPANY, BENIN)

 

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT

This study was intended to evaluate the effect of motivation of labour, cost and productivity on Nigerian construction industry. This study was guided by the following objectives; To examine the factors which motivate employees to perform in the organization, To look at various techniques of motivating people to performance in the construction industry, To ascertain the effect of motivation of labour, cost and productivity on workers in the construction industry of Nigeria, To identify the problems associated with the motivation of workers in the construction industry of Nigeria, To suggest the solutions to such problems, if any, Finally, to improve people’s knowledge in this area of organizational behaviour.

The study employed the case study design; questionnaires in addition to library research were applied in order to collect data. Primary and secondary data sources were used and data was analyzed using the simple percentage mean and chi-square (X²) statistical tool at 5% level of significance which was presented in frequency tables and percentage. The respondents under the study were 160 respondents of Marlum construction company Benin.

The study findings revealed that there is a positive relationship between the quality of supervision and motivation to work; this implies that workers being conscious of the management supervisory role will put in their best to work. Many of the workers in the company are not happy with the fringe benefits, which they get from the company.

This study will educate the management of the organization (especially construction companies in Nigeria) on how to motivate their workers to productivity.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

Human resource management is of strategic importance when it comes to industries that are labour intensive like construction industry. The effective management of human resource is the key towards achieving the higher construction workforce productivity thus accomplishing the construction projects within their predefined limits. The bond between motivation and productivity is widely accepted and of high significance as well. The relationship between motivation and productivity can be summarized as that productivity is directly linked to motivation, and motivation is, in turn, dependent on productivity. Suitable motivation of labour can be hypothesized as a key contributor to maximizing workers’ productivity Kazaz et al (2008. Workers need motivation just as equipments need fuel and operators. Motivation is a process which activates productivity. In order to effectively manage the human resources and to make sure that workforce is productive enough; it is necessary to understand those factors which have edge over others for motivating the construction workforce. In this study, the potential of organizational and economic factors will be studied for motivating employees.

There were several studies which explored the relationship between motivational factors and construction workforce productivity around the globe but there was a scarcity of this work in the local environment of Nigeria. The construction industry plays an important role in the development of the economy of the country. Construction industry is an area influenced by many different factors such as labour, material, equipment and construction methods etc. Among these factors, human resources come first without which, other resources would not be utilized or transformed into productive use. Any improvement in labour productivity would contribute a great deal to the improvement of the overall productivity as identified by Hashim (1995). The motivation concept is generally defined as a composition of powers and mechanisms which help to direct human behavior in a desired manner, or with a more specific context it is described as the all convincing and encouraging actions which help workers fulfill their tasks willingly and to come closer to project objectives. Motivation of the labour force is of paramount importance because the quality of human performance at the workplace depends largely upon motivation. That is, higher motivation brings higher productivity which is suggested by Kazaz et al (2008). According to most researchers there is a positive relationship between motivation and productivity. This means that when motivation increases, a rise in productivity is also expected. This reflects the belief that an increased motivation level causes an increase in productivity. Achieving the results demands that an adequate quality of inputs is provided in this first place and improved construction workforce productivity means a better input and this it will help contractors to be more competent and profitable whilst executing their jobs.

 

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Construction companies exist for the purpose of rendering some services. For the organization to meet its objectives, people are employed in the organization in order to help the organization meet its objectives. Thus, in order to ensure that people employed in the organization perform optimally towards the realization of organizational goals, they need to be motivated to work.

 

Motivating people to work entails meting their needs. There is a great controversy over the issue of motivating people.

Some people are of the view that such extrinsic factors like money, praise, and quality of supervision and company’s policy can motivate people to work, while others are of the view that such extrinsic factors like advancement quality of the job done by person, recognition and growth can motivate workers to productivity.

It is in view of these controversies that this study wants to look at the motivation of employees in the organization by using MarlumConstruction Company as a case study; and in doing this, the following questions arise:

 

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY.

This research work hopes to achieve the following objectives:

1. To examine the factors which motivate employees to perform in the organization
2. To look at various techniques of motivating people to performance in the construction industry
3. To ascertain the effect of motivation of labour, cost and productivity on workers in the construction industry of Nigeria.
4. To identify the problems associated with the motivation of workers in the construction industry of Nigeria.
5. To suggest the solutions to such problems, if any.
6. Finally, to improve people’s knowledge in this area of organizational behaviour.

 

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

It is in view of the above problems that the following questions arise:

1.      What are the factors that motivate employees to perform in the construction industry of Nigeria?

2.      What are the available techniques of motivating employees for higher productivity?

3.      Do motivation of labour, and cost actually steer employees productive capacity?

4.      What are the problems militating against employees motivation, and

5.      How can these problems of employees’ motivation be addressed in order to improve productivity in the construction sector of Nigeria?

 

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses will be tested in this study:

1.                  Ho: The quality of supervision will not motivate workers productivity.

Hi: The quality of supervision will motivate workers productivity.

2.                  Ho: A worker’s perception of what obtained in his organizational will not motivate him to greater productivity.

Hi: A worker’s perception of what obtained in his organizational will motivate him to greater productivity.

3.                  Ho: A worker’s perception of organizational appraisal policy will motivate him to greater productivity.

Hi: A worker’s perception of organizational appraisal policy will not motivate him to greater productivity.

4.                  Ho: The worker’s satisfaction with its fringe benefits will not motivate him to greater productivity.

Hi: The worker’s satisfaction with its fringe benefits will motivate him to greater productivity.

 

 

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study will educate the management of the organization (especially construction companies in Nigeria) on how to motivate their workers to productivity.

The findings of this study will generate people’s interest in researching into other areas of motivation in the organization will enrich the literature on motivation as a phenomenon.

Finally, the study hopes to enrich people’s knowledge in this area of organizational behaviour and management of people in the organization.

 

1.7SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study is on effect of motivation of labour, cost and productivity on the construction industry of Nigeria. The study will also covers the various techniques of motivation and theories of motivation as they impact on employees productivity in an organization.

 

1.8  OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

The following terms were defined as used in this study:

Productivity: Is the ratio of output or production capacity of the workers in an organization. It is the relationship between the amount of one or more inputs and the amount of outputs from a clearly identified process.

Employees: are the workers in an organization, working for the accomplishment of the organizational goals. In this study, the employees are those staffs of the organization,

Motivation: Motivation is a decision-making process, through which the individual chooses the desired outcomes and sets in motion the behaviour appropriate to them".

Adequate Motivation:  These are factors (familiarity, concern and driving force), which exist or are provided in a work situation either physically or psychologically which determine the input and productivity level of the worker.

Intimacy:  Intimacy or Familiarity could be described as the feeling of warmth and friendliness based on interpersonal relationship among people.

Consideration: Consideration or Concern refers to a situation where both their colleagues and managers treat staffs with understanding. In this case, there is both a personal and human touch in dealing with workers.

Morale: Moral refers to staff emotional and mental level of zeal.

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE:   The Effect Of Motivation Of Labour, Cost And Productivity On Nigerian Construction Industry

ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH VEGETABLE SALAD

 

ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH VEGETABLE SALAD

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT

Fresh samples of vegetable salad collected from different food outlet in Ilorin metropolis were evaluated for bacteria loads, at a temperature of 25⁰c and the PH of the samples which is 3.7 using spread plate agar dilution method, the bacteria load ranges from 1.6x10⁴cfu/g to 11.5x10⁴cfu/g and faecal coliform ranges from 1.6x10⁴cfu/g to 4.6x10⁴cfu/g associated with the salad from majority of the samples. Microorganism associated with vegetable salad include,Bacillus anthracis mycobacterium spp, Brucella spp, Listeria monocytogenis, Yersima enterolytia, clostridium perfringens, Klebsiella spp and M. Paratuberculosis

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

        Vegetables are most consumed as salads or cooked in savory or salty dishes. While culinary fruits are usually sweet and used for deserts, but it is not the universal rule (Harri Vaino, Franca Bianchini, 2003).Some vegetable can be consumed raw, some may be eaten cooked and some must be cooked to destroy certain natural toxins or microbes in egg plant, unripe tomatoes, day lily, winter melon, fiddle head fern, and most kinds of legume/beans (such as common beans)

        The yellow/orange colors of fruits and vegetable are due to the presence of carotenoids, which are also affected by normal cooking processes or changes in pH. Chlorophyll is affected by the pH and it changes to olive green in acid conditions, and to bright green in alkaline conditions. Some of the acids are released in steam during cooking without a cover. The red/blue coloring of some fruits and vegetables (e.g., blackberries and red cabbage) are due to anthocyanins, which are sensitive to changes in pH. When the pH is natural, the pigments are purple, when acidic, red, and when alkaline, blue. These pigments are quite water-soluble. This property can be used in rudimentary testing of pH.

        Vegetables, as it name implies, is an edible plant or part of a plant, other than a fruit, planned for cooking or eating raw (Harri Vainio, Franca Bianchini,2003).

        During harvesting and transportation, raw vegetables may be bruised resulting in the release of plant nutrient, and thereby, providing substrates for microorganism present on the surface of the vegetables to grow. With a view of such exposure to pathogens, vegetables have been associated with the outbreaks of food borne disease in many countries (Alice, 2001).

        Bacteria are commonly found on raw foods like salads, eggs, beef, vegetables, cheese,  ice cream, unpastaurized milk, fish, fresh fruits, canned foods mushrooms etc(Noah,2009;Fry et al., 2005)

        Outbreaks of staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus and proteus food poisons after eating in a restaurant have been reported by some researchers in 2001, Norinaga Miwa reported on outbreak of staphylococcus aureus food poison due to the consumption of eggs in boxed launches prepared at their company cafeteria.(Norinaga et al). Aerobic colony counts, coliform and enterococci enumeration are useful and most often used means of accessing overall sanitation in the environments of food service establishment. (Collins, 1964; Jay, 1978, Moyo and Baudi, 2004).

        Effective cleaning is of prime importance since it not only removes gross contaminations but also any residues that could support the subsequent survivals and growth of microorganisms.(Clark,1965).As  a result of inadequate cleaning microorganism may persists on utensil and work surfaces and build in numbers(Fraizer and Westhoff,1988).The main objectives of sanitations is to minimize the access of microorganisms in food from various  sources    at    all      stages    of handling  (Marrioat,1989,cords and Dychdala,1993)

        Salad may be served at any point during a meal, such as: appetizer salads, light salads to stimulate the appetite as the first course of the meal, Dessert salads, sweet version often containing fruit, gelatin and or whipped cream

        In recent years, salad has become a very popular components of menu served in birthdays and wedding parties; they are also sold in fast food outlets in most major cities in Nigeria.

        Examples of different parts of plants used as vegetables are: coriander leaf, stem, flower bulbs, Leaves, leaf sheaths, leek, Tuber, Roots stem shoots, stem bulbs etc

 

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE:     Isolation And Identification Of Microorganism Associated With Vegetable Salad

 

ASSESSMENT OF RISK ON ROAD PROJECTS IN NIGERIA CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

 

ASSESSMENT OF RISK ON ROAD PROJECTS IN NIGERIA CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY (A CASE STUDY OF LAGOS METROPOLIS)

 

 

 

Consequences of uncertainty and its exposure in a project, is risk. In a project context, risk is the chance of something happening that will have an impact upon objectives. It includes the possibility of loss or gain, or variation from a desired or planned outcome, as a consequence of the uncertainty associated with following a particular course of action. (Deviprasadh, 2007). Risk thus has two elements: the likelihood or probability of something happening, and the consequences or impacts if it does. Managing risk is an integral part of good management; it is fundamental to achieving good business and project outcomes and the effective procurement of goods and services Risk management provides a structured way of assessing and dealing with future uncertainly. Project risk management includes the processes concerned with identifying, analyzing, and responding to project risk. It includes maximizing the results of positive events and minimizing the consequences of adverse events." (Deviprasadh, 2007).

Project Management Institute (2004) defines project risk as an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or a negative effect on at least one project objective, such as time, cost, scope, or quality. A risk may have one or more causes and, if it occurs, one or more impacts Construction projects vary in type and nature and a large number of people with professional skills. The variations are endless, but what all projects have in common is their exposure to risk (Flanagan and Norman, 1999).

Civil engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the creation, improvement, and protection of the communal environment, providing facilities for living, industry and transportation, including large buildings, roads, bridges, canals, and other engineered constructions (Stark, 2008). It is characterized by its high magnitude, uncertainties and the level of risk involved (Seeley and Murray, 2001). Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, it is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering. Coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. (Oakes  2001).

Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies (ICE, 2007), Civil engineering was first introduced as a profession in 1828 and the Royal charter of the Institute of Civil Engineers (2007) defined civil engineering as the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns (ICE, 2007). Construction engineering is a civil engineering sub discipline that involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation (Wikipedia, 2011). The modes of transportation as identified by Lam (1999) are roadways, railways, waterways, and airways. A road is a route on land between two places which typically has been paved or other wise improved to allow travel by some conveyance (Wikipedia, 2011).

Cost overruns and delays are not unusual in civil engineering works. This pattern of risk is' largely influenced by the financial structure of the projects (Lam, 1999).

 During limes of foreign exchange and interest role fluctuations, most conventional projects funded by direct capital injection from the governments may be affected by cost increases in their imported elements. The use of project finance in privatized projects also means that lenders rely solely on the prospective income stream for repayment of their loans. Late completion will erode the financial plan and extra interest costs on the part of the sponsors. There are also uncertainties as to the level and stability of income which depends on the market condition of the product in question. In road project, land acquisition can be a slow and expensive process especially when a long road has to go through different municipalities or different provinces having non-standardized land resumption procedures. Right of way disputes sometimes creep in, as is the likelihood of treading on archeological mines and former industrial site with contaminated grounds (Lam, 1999).

There are many examples of non-achievement of time, cost and quality of projects due to the absence of risk management techniques in project management. Therefore, the success parameters of a construction project, namely, the timely completion, staying within the specified budget, and achieving requisite performance would depend upon the capability of each party in risk management. (Perera, 2009).

1.2       STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

As construction and engineering projects increases in complexity, the magnitude of risk involved for all the parties involved increases, from the clients, to contractors, architects, quantity surveyors, engineers, investors, and financial institutions (Seeley & Murray, 2001). Risk has been studied by different researchers (Farinloye 2009: Onukbwe 2009; Dada and Jagboro, 2007; Baker 1999; Perera et al, 2009) in the light of the influence it has made in decision making in the construction industry and the techniques that could be used by the design and construction team in the management of risk on construction projects.

 

Farinloye et al., (2009) assessed the construction professional's perception of risk impact on cost of building projects and concluded that completion delay is the risk variable that has the highest probability of occurrence and this risk has the second highest impact on construction cost. Onukwube et al., (2009) also assessed risk in the light of the impact it has on contractors' pricing in building projects and concluded that inadequate cash flow had a significant impact on contractors pricing of building projects. These studies were limited to building projects in Nigeria and no attempt was made to cover road projects.

Dada and Jagboro (2007) carried out an evaluation of the impact of risk on project cost overrun; they identified the risk factors inherent in different building procurement methods and assessed their impact on project cost. However, this study was limited to risk factors in relation to building procurement methods and the impact on cost. Baker et al., (1999) examined the risk response techniques employed for major projects and they concluded that the construction industry concentrates almost exclusively on reduction of financial risk. Perera et al., (2009) also assessed risk in civil engineering construction, they identified the risk responsibilities of contractual parties’ in order to improve their risk handling strategies but the study was limited to road construction in Sri Lanka.

Therefore, this study becomes vital to fill the gaps identified above as the research works identified did not cover the impact of risk on road projects in Nigerian Construction industry. In the light of this, the following research questions are raised:

1.3      RESEARCH QUESTIONS

i.                   What are the risk factors inherent in road project?

ii.                 What are the effects of risk on the duration of road?

iii.              How do these factors affect the total construction cost of road  project?

 

1.4    AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this research is to examine the impact of risk on road projects in Nigerian construction industry. The specific objectives are to;

i.                    Identify and assess the various risk factors associated with road project in Nigerian construction industry.

ii.                  Determine the effect of risk factors on cost of road project in the study area.

iii.                Determine the effect of risk factors on completion time of road project in the study area.

1.5   JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Civil engineering works encompass a wide range of different projects which are of great magnitude. Vast cuttings and embankments, mass and reinforced concrete structures, large structural steel construction, reservoirs, sewage schemes, piling for heavy foundations, harbor works, dry docks, roads, canal and railways, all form subject matter of civil engineering contracts.

These works require considerable skill and technical knowledge in both their design and construction. Continual changes in nature and methods of construction in these projects, and the increasing size and complexity of these works increases the risk involved (Seeley & Murray, 2001). Road projects however often confront many uncertainties, due to factors such as resource availability, the physical, economic and political environments, statutory regulations, etc.(Perera et al., 2009). According to Wang and Chou (2003), such risks have a significant effect on the outcome of a road construction process.

Assessing risk offsets negative impact it may have and pursue positive impact (PM1, 2004). The study therefore becomes necessary to identify the impact of risk on road projects with a view to providing information to construction professionals in reducing to the barest minimum the risk associated with road projects in Nigeria.

1.6   SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study focused on the assessment of the impact of risk on road projects in Nigeria. The study was restricted to federal and state roads in Lagos state.

1.7     RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The approaches that were adopted to achieve the stated objectives include the following: primary and secondary data source.

The primary source of data was generated through questionnaire survey administered to construction professionals in civil engineering construction and consulting companies, and professionals that coordinate road project in the federal and state ministries in the study area. The survey was carried out in order to assess the risk-factors inherent in road projects in terms of their degree of severity and assess their impact on total cost and duration of the project.

The secondary source of data included reports such as published textbooks, refereed conference proceedings; dissertation or theses and government publications which focus on the theme of the research.

 

EDITOR SOURCE:     Assessment Of Risk On Road Projects In Nigeria Construction Industry

AN INSIGHT INTO THE DRUG RESISTANCE PROFILE AND MECHANISM OF DRUG RESISTANCE IN NEISSERIA GONORRHOEA

AN INSIGHT INTO THE DRUG RESISTANCE PROFILE AND MECHANISM OF DRUG RESISTANCE IN NEISSERIA GONORRHOEA

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT

 

 

Among the aetiological agents of treatable sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), Neisseria Gonorrhea is considered to be most important, because of emerging antibiotic resistance strains that compromise the effectiveness of treatment of the disease. Gonococci infections are usually treated with single – dose therapy with an agent found to cure above 95 percent of each case, but unfortunately Neisseria gonorrhea has developed resistance to most of the antibiotic used against it, which can be categorized into pre-quinolone, quinolone and post – quinolone era.

        Among the anti-biotic available so far, the third generation “cephalosporin has also be safely recommended as first line therapy for gonorrhea globally;

INTRODUCTION

        Despite the recent advances in diagnosis, surveillance and treatment, sexual transmitted disease (STDs) remain one of the leading diseases throughout the world. Increased promiscuity and onset of sexual activity at an early age are two important contributing factors to the spread of sexual transmitted disease.  Neisseria gonorrheae (also known as the gonococcus) colonizes primarily in the human genital urinary tract, giving rise to the sexually transmitted infection gonorrhea.  It cause both symptomatic and asymptomatic genital and extra genital tract infections.  Disease caused by this organism is a significant public health problem despite continual advances in treatment (Tanaka and Reyn et al, 2004).

       

 

World wide, there is an estimated 62million new cases a year, with an average of 22miilion cases at any given time (WHO, 1992).  N. gonorrhea inhabits mainly mucosal surface of the urethra in males and the cervix in females.  As the signs and symptoms of infection are often absent or obscure complication such as pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), infertility, entopic pregnant woman may lead to crucial perforation and blindness in the newborn. Gonococci infection have also been documented to facilitate acquisition and transmission of HIV and HPV infection (Hunter et al. 1990).  Asymptomatic infections by N. gonorrhoeae largely contribute to the persistence and transmission of disease in a community. (Hunter et, al.1990).

Therefore, to eliminate N. gonorrhea infection and in turn to control HIV and HPV infection it is important not only to screen high – risk population but also to treat them immediately with most effective drugs.  Control of gonococci infection has relied on effective single – dose antibiotic therapy given at the initial clinical visit, prior to any knowledge of the organism’s susceptibility pattern.  In the recent past, there has been an alarming increase in the number of isolate of N. gonorrhea resistance to commonly used drugs.  (Chaudhry et al, 2002).  Surveillance is therefore, necessary to understand on going resistance trends and to ensure the success of any therapy.

The irrational and injudicious use of antibacterial agents especially in the developing countries is encouraging this trend and the situation is expected to worsen unless appropriate steps are initiated. This resistance of the gonococcus to antibiotics has been the cause of much concern in recent years and has been the subject of extensive investigation.  The present review summarizes and trends to drug resistance in N. gonorrhoeae, mechanism of drug resistance and discusses the treatment regime.  In addition, the need to look for new and alternative antibacterial agent is also emphasized.

 

EDITOR SOURCE:     An Insight Into The Drug Resistance Profile And Mechanism Of Drug Resistance In Neisseria Gonorrhoea

 

THE IMPACT OF BANKING REFORMS ON BANK PERFORMANCE

THE IMPACT OF BANKING REFORMS ON BANK PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIA

 

 

 

 

Reforms are predicated upon the need for reorientation and repositioning of an existing status quo in order to attain an effective and efficient state. There could be fundamental bottle-neck that may inhibit the functioning of the institutions for growth and the achievement of core objectives in the drive towards enhancing and sustaining the economic and social imperatives of human endeavor. Carried out through either government institutions or private enterprises, reform becomes inevitable in the light of the global dynamic exigencies and emerging landscape (Somoye, 2006).

 

In terms of policy thrust therefore the banking sector reforms are expected to build and foster a competitive and healthy financial system to support development and avoid systemic distress (Soludo, 2007). Thus Balogun (2007) averred that banking sector reforms is interpreted to mean embarking on comprehensive process aimed at

Substantially improving the financial infrastructure, strengthening the regulatory and supervisory framework to address the issue of low capitalization and a structured financing for cheap credit to the real sector and financial accommodation for small and rural credit schemes. In most cases, bank reforms are embarked upon to forestall banking crises or cushion the effects of a recent crisis. Banking sector reforms have come into play due to banks inability to meet up to required obligations or satisfy their stakeholders which overtime have led to subsequent failures and crises. A banking crisis can be triggered by weakness in banking system characterized by persistent illiquidity, insolvency, undercapitalization, high level of non-performing loans and weak corporate governance, among others. (Adegbaju and Olokoyo, 2008).

 

The reforms carried out in Nigerian banking industry which started from July 6  2004 was done primarily to meet the developmental challenges of the 21^st century. In his words, Professor Charles Soludo, the governor of Central Bank of Nigeria from June 2004 to June 2009 said that the reforms were to engender exchange rate and price stability, managing interest rate for stability and development of macroeconomic coordination, vigorous pursuit of the developmental roles of the CBN, improvement of the payment system, financial sector diversification and regulatory reforms and strategies for integrating the Nigeria’s financial system into the African regional and global financial system. He further emphasized his desire to concentrate on the theme of banking sector consolidation. Strengthening and consolidating the banking system was to constitute the first phase of the reforms designed to ensure a diversified, strong and reliable banking sector which will ensure the safety of the depositor’s money, play active developmental roles in the Nigerian economy and be competent and competitive players in the African regional and global financial system. The reform was to support the banks to become strong players for good health, long live and positive contributors to the economy. Depositors were expected to have sweet dreams in aftermath of this reform. With the universal Banking system which was introduced in 2000, banks became one stop shops offering a range of financial services, insurance, mortgage, stock broking, investment, banking etc. Unfortunately after the observation that the banks were putting shareholders’ funds at risk and not concentrating on their areas of core competence, the central Bank of Nigeria on 15 March 2010 announced the phasing out of universal banking within the 18 months. All these reforms had taken place but the benefits especially as it relates to bank performance is still a doubt to many people.

 

 

1.0  STATEMENT TO THE PROBLEM

Oloyode (1994) observed that the banking sector over the years has been faced with so many crises and some fraudulent practices. These crises led to the recent reforms in the banking system one of which was merger and acquisition of banks. Oke (2006) observed that the inconsistency in monetary reforms and regulatory policies as a major setback to banks stability as the surveillance and regulatory measures of the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) have unfortunately been unable to keep the pace with the rapidity of the changes in the financial system.

 

One objective of the reform is to create a sound and more secured banking system that depositors can trust. These banking reforms were expected to address the problem faced by the banks and other technically insolvent institutions without an initial resort to liquidation, with all its adverse consequences for deposits. These problems encountered by the banks before the reformation according to Lemo (2005) were as follows:

a.       Weak corporate governance, evidenced by high turnover in the board and management staff, inaccurate reports and non compliance with regulatory requirements.

b.      Late or non publication of annual accounts that obviates the impact of market discipline in ensuring banking soundness.

c.        Poor risk management practice.

d.      Operation at level lower than that which could deliver competitive return on equity.

e.       Poor asset quality.

f.       Poor quality services and diversified delivery channels.

g.      Thin spread of qualified and experienced man power.

h.      Heavy reliance by banks on government patronage.

i.        Gross insider abuses, resulting in huge non performing insider related credits.

j.        Weak capital base, the minimum capital base before the reforms was N2 billion which is approximately $15 million. But after the reform the minimum capital requirement stood at N25 billion, approximately $250 million.

According to Soludo (2007), the Nigerian banking system has undergone remarkable changes over the years. Regimes in Central Bank of Nigeria have always geared up towards the avoidance of banking distresses and its attendant consequences as witnessed in Nigeria in the past. These changes have been influenced largely by challenges posed by the reforms in an attempt to consolidate and strengthen the banking system and solve the problem of illiquidity and distress, and to restore public confidence in the sector. However, the correlation between these sets of reforms and banks performance has not been clearly ascertained.

 

 

1.1  OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of the study is to ascertain the impact of banking reforms on Bank performance in Nigeria. The specific objectives are:

1.   To determine the effect (s) of banking reforms on bank performance in Nigeria.

2        To assess the impact of interest rate restructuring on bank’s performance in Nigeria.

3        To determine the impact of Bank Recapitalization /consolidation on bank’s performance in Nigeria.

 

1.4       RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research questions were formulated to address the research problem and the research objectives as discussed above. Three principal research questions were answered in this study. They are:

1.      Do bank reforms have any effect on bank’s performance in Nigeria?

2.      How does interest Rate restructuring impact on bank’s performance in Nigeria?

3.      Has bank recapitalization /consolidation had any impact on bank’s performance Nigeria?

 

1.5       RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Based on the research questions above the following hypotheses were designed to guide the course of study

1.      Bank reforms do not have any effect on bank’s performance in Nigeria.

2.      There is no significant impact on bank’s performance by interest Rate in Nigeria.

3.      Bank Recapitalization/consolidation does not significantly impact on bank’s performance in Nigeria.

 

1.6    SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The research covers all the reforms that have taken place in the Nigerian Banking system within the period 2000 – 2008.

 

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

One of the major significance of the work includes the evaluation of the banking reforms in terms of its impact on efficiency in the Nigerian banking sector. At the en of this study, the following shall benefit.

v  Government of Nigeria at respective levels: Federal, State and Local Government in seeing the way to propound laws to care for the problems of the monetary policies of the bank.

v  The bankers in seeing how to execute their works in order to bring about a fair and sound financial system.

v  General public in understanding how the reforms have helped the banking sector.

 

1.8       OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Consolidation: This occurs when two companies combines into one for either a

business or other purposes.

Mergers: A merger occurs when two or more companies transfer their businesses and asset to a new company and in consideration; their members receive shares in the transferee company

Acquisition: An acquisition occurs when one company acquires sufficient shares in another company so as to control that other company. This may be inform of take over bids or by purchasing shares in the market

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE:     The Impact Of Banking Reforms On Bank Performance In Nigeria