A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF CODE-MIXING AND CODE-SWITCHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

 A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF CODE-MIXING AND CODE-SWITCHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

1.1   Background to the Study

Language can be said to be the most complex and detailed aspect of human existence. It is the DNA of human behaviour and culture as the people’s history and memory is embedded in it. This memory encapsulated in language also determine, among other things, how they used language and how language uses them. This volatile characteristic of language has birthed, directly and indirectly, such bridge studies such as sociolinguistics which is

the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society , including cultural norms , expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society (Wikipedia)

The organic feature language implies that it surfaces in the its use. A person fluent in more than one language would often find his or herself segueing from one language to another and consequently one language system to another. Language affects perception and in the expression of thought verbally, these varying thought patterns is seen.

This switching isn’t just in moving from one language to another but can be seen in the use of systems of one language in another showing a consciousness that is tied to a language even when one has extensive command of the one presently in use. This is how pidgins are born: the establishment of unique systems in language use across bilingual users. Against this backdrop, we would be doing a sociolinguistic study of code-mixing and code switching in secondary schools in Nigeria.

1.2   Statement of the Problem

Among secondary school students in Nigeria presently are varying language uses including English which is the official language and the language of education. However these are children who go home to parents and peers who speak their native language. Sometimes for the singular fact that there is a lack in a proper teaching of the English language, these secondary school children leant and use the language through the eyes of their mother tongue.

Other times, it is simply the bilingual presence of dexterity in two languages equally so that thought is exercised simultaneously in these two or more languages. This is known as code-mixing and interchanged with another term, code switching by scholars. This phenomenon has been studied severally across varying language users but not specifically among Nigerian secondary school students who are unique in that they represent adequately the percentage of the Nigerian populace who have good command of both languages ( English and their mother tongue).

1.3   Research Questions

1.3.1      Can code-mixing and code-switching be used interchangeably?

1.3.2      What are the factors that inform their presence in secondary school students’ language use?

1.4   Objectives of the Study

The major objective of this research like every other research work of it’s kind is to fill up an academic gap. It is this gap that calls the research work into being which makes such a work valid whether it is able to prove its hypothesis or not. In this case, it aims at studying and establishing the manifestations of code-mixing and code-switching in secondary school students

1.5   Significance of the Study

This work is of great significance to any sociolinguist on a research on any of the manifestations of code-mixing and code-switching among a certain age and topography of Nigeria especially one whose focus is on a pattered manifestation.

It’s also very relevant for teachers in tracking a child’s acquisition of a second language and to what extent this child exercises thought in the languages at his or her disposal. So that the modules for teaching can be fashioned with a specific aim in view.

1.6   Research Hypothesis

This research work is predicated upon the sociolinguistic assumption that code-mixing and code-switching are not to be used interchangeably. It also assumes that a greater manifestation of it in Nigeria is to be seen among secondary school students.

1.7   Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is strictly studying code-mixing and code-switching among secondary school students across the different regions in the country. However, the study subject will consist of one school for each from the different geopolitical zones with one covering for the whole of the north due to lack of space, time and resources.

Also, data will be gathered through the used of one on one interactions with the students and the passing of questionnaires with questions that aims at capturing this form of language use on and off the learning environment.

1.8   Limitations of the Study

A research such as this one would require a thorough examination of the sociolinguistic issue of code-mixing and code-switching across a large pool of students and reading materials as it is a topic that cuts across disciplines and bridge disciplines. The above are the limitations of this research work namely the time constraints and financial inadequacies to cover wider grounds.

1.9   Definition of Term

Code-mixing

This is the mixing of two or more languages and language systems during a speech act so that one slide from one string of phrases to another

Code-switching

Most linguists and sociolinguists use both code-mixing and code-switching interchangeably. However, in code-mixing what is emphasized is the hybrid created from this mixture of two language system while code-switching merely captures just this drawing from two language systems.

Sociolinguistics

This bridge discipline between sociology and linguistics studies in detail the societal influences on language and also how language influences society.

Code

It is a verbal component that can be as small as a morpheme or as comprehensive and complex as the entire systems of a language . It also refers to speech varieties in a language .

 

Switching

It is the process of moving something into another . It is a shift or change.

Code Switching

It is as common term for alternative use of two or  more language, varieties of a language or even speech styles . While Hoffman (1991:104) defines code switching is  the  changes     over  sentences  and   can occur during the conversation.

Mixing

It is put or bring something together.

Code mixing 

It refers to all cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appears in one sentence .

 

EDITOR SOURCE: A Sociolinguistic Study Of Code-Mixing And Code-Switching In Secondary Schools

 

A QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER’S PREPARATION

 A QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER’S PREPARATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR, CALABAR CROSS RIVERS STATE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

1.1   Background to the Study

Teaching is an active engagement that always has a result in view and no matter how energetic a lecture period is, it’s quality will always be measured in relation to students percentage of having grasped what was taught. So that each discipline, faculty, department and corresponding department keep tabs of how the lecturers are handling the courses allocated them. In a country where there is a high level of work apathy due to a list of factors, there is always more and more need to supervise the teaching skills and preparedness of workers and lecturer particularly. The job description in any establishment determines the method of recording output. Some jobs can easily and productively be measured in terms of numbers and visible results.

However, others can prove to be more difficult with a qualitative assessment of input and consequently output. By quantitative assessment we are referring to those types of work assessment that:

express their results in numbers. They tend to answer questions like “How many?” or “How much?” or “How often?” When they’re used to compare things – the results of community programs, the effects of an economic development effort, or attitudes about a community issue (Phil Rabinowitz)

When it comes to the issue we are grappling with namely the degree of preparedness of lecturers who teach the English language in the University of Calabar in Cross River, Nigeria, this number based method of assessment does not suffice. If one relies on student performance to assess this, one runs into the discrepancies that would be created by differences in cognitive abilities of student thereby calling for an assessment method that is more organic than statistical.

1.2   Statement of the Problem

Owing to the recurring habit of low preparedness in the teachers of the English Language in the department of English and their sister Use of English units of the School of General studies, it is evident that there should be put in place a feasible method of assessing the level and quality of preparation on the side of these teacher. It is not surprising that this is directly proportional to the students' overall performance in the course and their good command of the object of study- the English language. This is the problem that has birthed the present research work which aims to use a qualitative assessment method on the above.

1.3   Research Questions

1.3.1      what are the factors that bear upon the low level of preparation in the teachers of English language in the said university.

1.3.2      What are the methods that will see to a holistic assessment that will only arrive at clear feedback on the object of study.

1.4   Objectives of the Study

The purpose of the present research work is to qualitatively assess the teacher preparedness in teaching English language in the university of Calabar. Calabar Cross Rivers State of Nigerian. This objective will be achieved by targeted delineation of this bulky task into it’s various area.

First, the teachers in question are going to be made to write an essay detailing the protocol, whether departmentally designed of personally developed, by which they prepare for their lectures and the handling of the courses allocated them in general. This way the research will show the present or lack thereof of an adequate preparation.

1.5   Significance of the Study

On a holistic view, this research work will show a pattern that informs a high level of preparation or a low level of preparation of teachers in the department. The implication is that what needs to be done to combat a low level of preparation which consequently will affect student performance will be revealed and measures will be put in place for it.

This research work is highly significant in that it’s findings and the recommendations it will make in the last chapter can be implemented in many other tertiary institutions within and outside Cross River state including other departments whose mode of lecture deliverance and preparation bears great structural resemblance to that of the English departments.

This work is particularly significant seeing the nature of the course in question. English language is a second language in Nigeria which presents both grammatical, phonological, syntactical issues for both the students and teachers. Therefore, the teachers as well need even more preparation before teaching the course as anything learned in it through time becomes etched in the psyche of the students who would later become teachers in the future. The findings here would assist both the school and teachers in keeping a meticulous tab on the quality of what is delivered in the classroom.

1.6   Research Hypothesis

This research work was conducted with an initial assumption that student grade output and lecture duration will not show a reliable assessment of the problem taken up here. It is believed here that whatever method to be used should focus on the teachers' own methods.

1.7   Scope of the Study

This research is focused on the teachers in the department of English in the University of Calabar Cross Rivers State, Nigeria which it sees as a microcosm of other related departments across the country with similar curriculum objectives hence a required level of preparation.

The assessment will engage only the teachers in the department and exclude every other class situation outside the requirements of course like make up seminar classes that features more of inputs from the students.

The mode of assessing the teachers will include a direct observance of their teaching on the spot and informal interviews targeted at providing a patterned methods of preparation.

1.8   Limitations of the Study

The first limitation encountered in the course of this research is the lack  of a sincere feedback from the teachers. Most of them are prone to constructing preparation methods that are not followed in the end.

Lack of manpower is another one. To observe each of the teachers takes time and financial resources which are not adequately covered by the research grant awarded this work.

 

1.9   Definition of Terms

Qualitative Assessment

These are methods of assessment that do not depend on numbers, data and a superficial enquiry into something but rather delves into the motivations of the situation.

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE: A Qualitative Assessment Of English Language Teacher’s Preparation In The University Of Calabar, Calabar Cross Rivers State

 

EFFECTS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF PARENTS ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF THEIR CHILDREN IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

 

EFFECTS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF PARENTS ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF THEIR CHILDREN IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background to the Study

          Man as a social being is endowed with different abilities to explore his environment and possibly to improve the lots of mankind.  That is why there are differences in educational attainment of students.

          However, these variances are not only found in students’ characteristics like hereditary, age, sex and intelligence quotients which are believed to relate more strongly to his/her achievement levels.  A considerable portion of variation in students could be accounted for, in other forms via socio-economic status of parents, family and environment, (family size), beliefs, value and prestige, reward of higher educational parental choice etc.

          The effects of socio-economic background of parents on the achievement of their children in school have been a great factor in the recent decade in academic system in the country.

          Socialization is the study of the society.  Various sociological schools of thought have asserted that in deciding whether a child performs well or not at school is of immense importance to identify the difference between the influence of the socio-economic background of parents and their children’s academic achievement and attainment.

          Coleman (1975) and Medill (1963) have argued that parental financial position and their level of education also reflects strongly on students’ performances.  This is so because it is generally accepted that the educated parents mostly value education.  However, the background of a child affects his success in schools.

          Levine and Harighurt (1975) discovered that all societies large or small, primitive or modern show social status group phenomenon of ranks.  The leader and people of high esteem occupying position at the top, others occupy intermediate position, yet others are at the foot of the ladder in social scale.

          Social environmental factors have been found to affect educational achievement of a child.  These factors include:

a.     Occupational status of his parents.

b.    The parent’s attitude towards their children’s school and expectation that they have for their children.

Boocock (1973) and Durbey (1972 & 1973) explain that parents of socio-economic upper class have more positive attitudes towards their children schooling and also have high expectations and standard for the children as they are given high motivation of success in school.

The status of parents determines the type of education that the child is bound to receive; wealthy parents often allow their children to attend private schools, while the less privilege or opportune parents send their children to public school where the school fees are affordable to them.  Students’ progress through school is reflected not only in grades list scores and accounts of personal behavior in the classroom but in the characteristics.

Parents not only train children towards the social norms of the society but improve their socio-economic background towards achieving a stated goal.  It’s therefore, imperative and immense benefit to look at the effect of socio-economic background of parents on the academic achievement of their children in schools.

1.2     Statement of Problem

          This project is designed to investigate the effect of socio-economic background on the academic achievement of their children in school at Igueben Local Government Area of Edo State.

          The research aimed at investigating the extent of the following sub-problems:

1.     To what extent does parents’ background usually affect their children’s academic performance?

2.     To what extent do children from the home of low income group attend school regularly because of their parents’ inability to provide for school requirements and equipment adequately?

3.     To what extent there exist good parents – child relationship, how such affects their children’s academic performance?

 

1.3     Research Questions

          To evaluate the socio-economic background as it affects the academic achievement of children in schools, the following research questions were raised:

1.     Is there any significant difference between children from wealthy parents and those from poor parents in terms of academic achievement?

2.     Is there any major difference between the academic ends, achievements of children from broken home and children from unbroken homes?

3.     Is there difference between the academic performance of children from polygamous families and the children from monogamous families?

4.     Is there significant difference between the academic achievement of children from educated home and those from uneducated homes?

5.     Is there any significant difference in academic performance between children from large family and those from small family?

1.4     Research Hypotheses

i.       There is no significant difference between children from wealthy parents and those from poor parents in terms of academic achievement.

ii.      There is no difference in the academic performance of children from polygamous families and the children from monogamous families.

iii.     There is no significant difference in academic performance between children from large family and those from small family.

iv.     There is no significant difference in the academic achievement of children from educated homes and those from uneducated homes.

v.      There is no major difference in the academic achievements of children from broken homes and children from unbroken homes.

1.5     Purpose of the Study

          The purpose of the study is to investigate and determine to what extent parents’ education, wealth, parents-child relationship, types of family, size of family etc influence academic performance or achievement of pupils in Igueben Local Government Area of Edo State and make suitable recommendations to ameliorate them.

1.6     Significance of the Study

          It is believed that this study will highlight the effects of the socio-economic background of parents on the academic achievements of their children in schools in Igueben Local Government Area.

          These findings will no doubt influence parents or government to be well informed in order not to be misled about the socio-economic variable that affect students’ educational achievements.

          The findings will help educate parents on how best to attain the best academic achievement of their children.  It also exposes teachers, counselors and educationist to the problem facing students’ academic performance like emotional instability, tension brought from poor homes.

          Conclusively, this work will give useful recommendations to government and parents on how to improve the academic achievement of their students in schools.

1.7     Scope and Delimitation

          This study is focused on how the socio-economic background of parents affects their children’s academic performance in school in the present day, in Igueben Local Government Area of Edo State.

Limitation

          The possibility of the respondents being hesitant to give the timely responses, even after being assured of confidentiality.  This may result in some inaccurate result; some biased responses from some of the respondents may also affect the accuracy of the findings.

 

 

1.8     Definition of Terms

          In order to avoid misinterpretation of terms, the following terms used in this study and their definitions are given in accordance in this study as follows:

Socio-economic Status:  The socio-economic status of an individual in a family within any given society is determined by the level of education, income, occupational background and other criteria of social class.

Academic Achievement/Performance:  This refers to how much an individual has achieved or attain after a course of instructional training in a school settings.

Polygamous Family:  This is a custom in which a man is married to more than one wife at a time.

Monogamous Family:  This is the practice of a man being married to a wife at a time.

Broken Home:  This is a situation whereby the parents of the homes are apart or divorced, that is the parents of a child are not living together (in most cases, the children lack care, security and training).

Unbroken Home:  Here the co-operation exists between the father, mother and children, because they are together and not divorced.  In this practice the children enjoy care, security, training, etc.  So the child is well catered for.

 

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE: Effects Of Socio-Economic Background Of Parents On The Academic Achievement Of Their Children In Secondary Schools In Nigeria

 

STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE STUDY OF ECONOMICS IN NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

 

STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE STUDY OF ECONOMICS IN NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

1.1BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greekοἰκονομία (oikonomia, "management of a household, administration") from οἶκος (oikos, "house") + νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)". Political economy was the earlier name for the subject, but economists in the late 19th century suggested "economics" as a shorter term for "economic science" that also avoided a narrow political-interest connotation and as similar in form to "mathematics", "ethics", and so forth.

A focus of the subject is how economic agents behave or interact and how economies work. Consistent with this, a primary textbook distinction is between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behavior of basic elements in the economy, including individual agents (such as households and firms or as buyers and sellers) and markets, and their interactions. Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment, inflation, economic growth, and monetary and fiscal policy.

Other broad distinctions include those between positive economics (describing "what is") and normative economics (advocating "what ought to be"); between economic theory and applied economics; between rational and behavioral economics; and between mainstream economics (more "orthodox" and dealing with the "rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus") and heterodox economics (more "radical" and dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus").

Economic analysis may be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, and government, but also to such diverse subjects as crime,[education, the family, law, politics, religion social institutions, war, and science. At the turn of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.

An attitude may be defined as a predisposition to respond in a favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given attitude object (Oskamp and Schultz 2005). The focus of this project is on school students’ attitudes towards Economics subjects taught in secondary classrooms. The term ‘subjects’ refers to both theory and laboratory classes in secondary school. Thus, the scope of the present study was limited to Economics as experienced by students in secondary school rather than out-of-school experiences obtained from external sources such as the media, museums, field trips and friends. Attitude towards Economics or science denotes interests or feelings towards studying Economics or science. It is the students’ disposition towards like or ‘dislike’ science while attitude in science means scientific approach assumed by an individual for solving problems, assessing ideas and making decisions. Student beliefs and attitudes have the potential to either facilitate or inhibit learning (Yara, 2009).Many factors could contribute to student’s attitude toward studying science (Economics). Several studies (including Wilson 1983; Soyibo, 1985;Berg 2005; Adesoji, 2008) report that students’ positive attitudes to science correlate highly with their that, in general, the attitude of Nigeria students towards the basic sciences tend to decrease in the order, Biology, Economics, Physics and Mathematics. Defiana (1995) found that using integrated science environment activities improved high school student attitude toward and awareness about the environment. Armstrong and Impara (1991) in their studies determined that fifth and seventh – grade students using nature score as a curriculum supplement developed more positive attitudes than those who did not. Abimbola (1983) reported that students exposed to a programmed instruction recorded higher and more favourable attitude towards mathematics. Ayelaagbe (1998) also reported a more positive attitude of studies after exposing them to self learning strategy. Similar results were obtained by Udousoro (2000) after using computer and text assisted programmed instruction and  Popoola (2002) after exposing students to a self learning device. Popoola(2008) also reported that students attitudes and interests to sciences, especially Agricultural science correlate highly with their science achievement. Halladyna and Shanghnessy (1982) and Adesoji (2008) have concluded that a number of factors have been identified as related to students’ attitude to science (Economics). Such factors include; teaching methods, teacher attitude, influence of parents, gender, age, cognitive styles of pupils, career interest, social view of science and Scientifics, social implicating of science (Economics)and achievement. The studies thus reviewed suggest that there is a relationship between attitude and methods of instruction and also between attitude and achievement; and that it is possible to predict achievement from attitude scores. What is needed to complement the results of such studies however is the nature of relationship between students’ attitude and factors related to teaching and learning of Economics? Results of these types of study are likely to broaden our knowledge as how we can influence students’ attitude positively towards Economics as a subject in Akure, Nigeria.

1.2PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study is to investigate the attitudes of students in Akure South Local Government Area of Ondo State toward studying of Economics as a subject. The study is also designed to make various recommendations for teachers and other stakeholders on how to arouse or improve students attitudes in the subject.

 

1.3STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

Despite the greater number of Economics graduates produced by our tertiary institutions; every year there are numbers of secondary schools where Economics teachers are not competent in the teaching of the subject. Also, the attitude of the students in secondary schools towards Economics as a profession is not encouraging. This makes the teaching of Economics ineffective and inefficient even where there are competent teachers to teach. It is on this premise, that this study is designed to investigate the attitude of students to teaching and learning of Economics in secondary schools.

 

1.4RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In order to investigate the attitude of students to Economics, the following questions were raised:

1.Do the students have positive attitudes towards Economics?

2.  Do their negative attitudes a result of the attitude of their teachers towards the subject?

3.  Do their attitudes towards problem solving result of unavailability of textbook and other instructional materials?

4.  Should Economics be made compulsory for all science students in secondary schools?

 

1.5SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study was limited to secondary schools in Akure South Local Government of Ondo State only. Based on the time frame and financial constraints in covering all the secondary schools in the Local Government, thestudy was also limited to the students in Senior Secondary Schools (SS Class)

 

The names of the schools are:

·  St. Dominic Grammar School, Akure.

·  C.A.C. Grammar School, Akure.

·  Oyemekun High School, Akure.

·  St. Peter’s Unity High School, Akure.

·  Fiwasiaye Girls Grammar School, Akure.

 

1.6SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study is aimed at looking at the students’ attitudes towards Economics in some selected secondary schools in Akure South Local Government Area of Ondo State. The results of the study is hoped to assist Economics teachers to develop new learning experience for the students and reorganize these learning experience in some ways enough to arouse the interest of the students. It would be of good assistance to teachers to create a habit were they would improve on the obsolete teaching methods, use adequate, modern and relevant instructional materials and textbooks at their disposed to the fullest. This study may also assist the students to improve their attitude towards the study of the subject. Finally, the government and parents would benefit from the study of their roles as these would be highlighted at the recommendation column.1.7Assumption of the Study Based on the study, the following assumptions were made. Secondary school students constitute a valid source of data needed in the study. Also, that the respondents will give valid and unbiased responses to the questionnaire items and that the samples drawn will be representatives of the population

 

  1.8DEFINITION OF TERMS

Economics:- This is a science subject taught in the Senior Secondary Schools.

Learning:- This is the process of acquiring knowledge in Economics among Senior Secondary School Students.

Attitude:- This refers to students’ positive mind to the study of Economics.

Teaching:- Transmission of the knowledge of Economics to Senior Secondary School Students. Instruction

Materials:- These are aids used in teaching and learning of Economics in Senior Secondary School.

 

 

 

 

EDITOR SOURCE:  Students’ Attitude Towards The Study Of Economics In Nigerian Secondary Schools