INFRASTRUCTURE RENEWAL PROGRAMS: A REMEDY TO LAGOS MEGACITY CHALLENGES

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY  

The population of Lagos is at present in excess of 18 million. A megacity status is conferred by the United Nations on cities with a population of 10 million and above. Building and preserving a model mega city comes with great challenges. Providing a sufficient amount of infrastructure and other necessities that would accommodate the needs of over 18 million people could be daunting (Ayeni, 2008).

By 2025, officials and population analysts agreed that the number of people in the city and in the surrounding communities, especially, in Ogun State axis, would leap to 30 million. Prominent among the challenges are housing, infrastructure and transportation, particularly in more than 10 local government areas (LGAs) that made up of the state, excluding local council development areas (LCDAs). Besides, the notorious traffic jams, choking pollution, inadequate supply of potable water, insecurity and absence or inadequate social and economic needs of the people pose more challenges. Apart from series of efforts put in place by government through several urban renewal programs, the uncontrolled influx of people from virtually every states of Nigeria, including neighboring countries, such as Benin Republic, Togo, Ghana and others, is heightening the fear that the next few years would provoke a daunting task for the authority (Tim, 2003). It has been observed that in some houses in Lagos metropolis, septics are channeled directly into the drain. The government is, therefore, challenged to invest heavily in the protection of the environment through urban renewal programs in order to avert environmental abuse and its consequences. People migrate from villages to the city-centre, without adequate understanding of reality on ground. Here, culture comes into play, such as open defecation as being done in the village, spreading of clothes publicly and cooking exercise in any open place, among others which is frustrating the efforts of the state government at transforming the city through urban renewal programs. Official admitted that planned urban renewal is a major challenge in an emerging model city like Lagos (Batley, 2003). Prior to the current urban regeneration efforts by the government, Lagos used to be referred to as a jungle of various emerging slums. However, a systematic urban development and slum renewal programme, in partnership with several development agencies, has since been put in place to reverse the trend being a major remedy to combat the menace characterized by urbanization. Consequently, various model city plans that included Ikeja Model Plan, Victoria Island/Ikoyi Model City Plan, Lekki Comprehensive Land Use and Infrastructure Master Plan have been completed while Mainland Central Model City Plan Badagry Draft Master Plan and Alimosho Master Plan have been concluded, while others are at various stages of execution. However, in order to give the urban renewal programme a legal backing, the Lagos State Model City Development Law was enacted in 2009 while the State Urban and Regional Planning Law were signed on July 7, 2010.

According to Lindan (1993), certainly, a megacity requires a stronger financial base. The sheer size of funding required in sustaining a megacity is beyond what a government could provide on its own. To this end, Kadiri was of the view that both federal and Ogun state governments should support Lagos in her efforts to sustain the challenges involved as a result of its mega status through the urban renewal programmes. According to Ogunleye, for the fact that many of the old slum areas are not in hidden locations make it easier for government to incorporate them in its urban renewal programmes. The formation of new slums is prevented but people’s influx is however not controllable in Lagos State, knowing full well that no legislation that frown against migration to the city. But government will do well if it opens up new settlement with the necessary infrastructure put in place. Although, government has embarked on infrastructure renewal projects that include the execution of on-going projects such as the light rail scheme from Orile to Mile 2, the redevelopment of the Lagos-Badagry expressway into ten lanes incorporating BRT lanes and light rails, on-going reconstruction of the Mile 12-Ikorodu road incorporating BRT lanes, the recently commissioned Ejigbo- Ajao Estate link bridge, recovery and redevelopment of loops hitherto used by criminals as hide-outs among others could only become feasible with a sustained system of funding. Notwithstanding the profoundness of these projects, it appears that much still need to be done to meet the need of millions of commuters on daily basis.

The condition of the environment also constitutes a major challenge to the Lagos megacity city. Lagos, for instance, generates 10,000 tonnes of waste daily, almost three times higher than what the whole of Ghana generates daily. Also, the kind of industrial pollution experienced in Lagos is second to none in the country. Maintenance of law and order is another major challenge of the Lagos mega city. Though a mega city status is conferred on a city as a result of population growth, building and sustaining a model mega city is not a tea party as reflected in the Lagos experience. In the case of Lagos, a major challenge, however, is how to cope with the ever-increasing population of Lagos with its attendant consequences on infrastructure

1.2   STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This study considers the solution to the challenges of Lagos mega-cities characterized by urbanization as an effective urban renewal programme. This approach is aimed at providing housing, environmental policies and planning strategies appropriate for facing the challenges of the urban growth and development. A megacity is usually defined according to the United Nation as a metropolitan area with a total population in excess of 10 million people. Some definitions also set a minimum level for population density (at least 2,000 persons/square km). A megacity can be a single metropolitan area or more metropolitan, depending on the definitions and boundaries being used. However, the researcher will provide an overview about urban renewal programme as a remedy to Lagos Mega city challenges.1.3   OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The following are the objectives of this study:

To examine the challenges of the Lagos mega city. To identify the urban renewal programmes put in place by government of Lagos State in addressing Mega city challenges. To determine the effectiveness of urban renewal programmes in Lagos State.

1.4   RESEARCH QUESTIONS

What are the challenges of the Lagos mega city? What are the urban renewal programmes put in place by government of Lagos State in addressing Mega city challenges? What is the effectiveness of urban renewal programmes in Lagos State?

1.6   SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The following are the objectives of this study:

The outcome of this study will educate the general public on how an effective urban renewal programmes can curb mega city challenges. This will also sensitize the policy makers on the need to introduce an urban renewal programme in controlling issue related to megacity problems in their territory. This research will also serve as a resource base to other scholars and researchers interested in carrying out further research in this field subsequently, if applied will go to an extent to provide new explanation to the topic.

1.7   SCOPE/LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY This study on infrastructure renewal programmes as a remedy to Lagos mega city challenges will cover all the programmes set up by the Lagos State government at tackling infrastructural challenges created as a result of the mega city. This study will also cover the issues leading to infrastructural decay in the State.LIMITATION OF STUDYFinancial constraint- Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).Time constraint- The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.REFERENCES Ayeni, B. (2008), “Lagos: Problems and Planning in Third World Cities”, St. Martin's Press, New York. Batley, R. (2003), “Political Control of Urban Planning and Management”, Managing Fast Growing Cities: New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management. Longman, London, pp. 176-206. Halla, F. (1994), “A Coordinating and Participatory Approach to Managing Cities”, Habitat International, Vol.18 No 3, pp. 19-31. Linden, E. (1993), “Mega-cities”, Time Magazine, 11 January, pp. 141-2, Tim, M. (2003), “Cairo Megacity“, Travel Guides Hotel Reviews; virtualtourist.com  

IMPACT OF REAL ESTATE SECTOR TO THE ECONOMIC GROWTH OF NIGERIA

 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY  

The Real Estate sector offers a great potential source of growth for Nigeria. Until now, the understanding of its composition and growth has been somewhat limited to its required use in Nigerian national accounts. Development is a general word that encompasses all aspects of human life, segments and disciplines, which give direction to the state of an economy. Globally, real estate sector is one of the most profitable ventures of every economy and one of the indices of measuring economic growth of a society. It is a sector that mirrors the economic viability and sustainability of an economy and its poverty level. Though there was no accurate data about housing shortage in Nigeria, it was however estimated that the shortage has risen to over 17 million (Ebie, 2005). Successive governments over the years have attempted to resolve these shortages with various policies but rather than reducing, the shortages kept increasing year in year out.

According to Ajanlekoko, 2001, the Federal housing agencies located in each state of the federation, were statutorily created to execute public housing programmes for each state of the federation based on the formulated housing policies. Specifically they are to undertake the development of estates by acquiring, developing, holding, managing, selling, leasing or letting any property movable or unmovable in their respective states; provide a home ownership saving scheme in respect of any housing estate or building owned, constructed and managed by them with a view to enabling members of the public purchase or build their own houses; provide sites and services scheme for residential, commercial and industrial purposes for the people of their respective states; construct and maintain modern dwelling houses at reasonable costs for sales to members of the public, undertake the construction of offices, commercial and industrial buildings for letting out to members of the public among other things, engage in other investment activities and opportunities as may be determined by the respective state governments. If there has been effective implementation of housing policies, all these would have significantly benefitted the masses and above all contributed to the growth of the nation’s economy as a result of profit made from sales and rents. Unfortunately however, most of the state housing agencies are under-utilized and have been rendered redundant and could hardly carry out their primary responsibility as elaborated in the respective laws setting up these agencies (Zubairu, 2001). Basically, the problems of housing delivery in Nigeria are rooted in three major factors namely lack of finance, escalating cost of building materials and infrastructural development cost.

These three problems are however peculiar to all housing delivery agencies and somewhat make affordable and mass housing difficult and has however reduced the contribution of the real estate sector to the nation’s economy.

1.2   STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Today in Nigeria, most of the housing corporations and the housing estates built by the previous governments merely exist by names (Mailafia, 2005). In some states, housing corporation staffs who are specialists in real estate development and management are rendered irrelevant in their special field while state ministries have taken over construction and in some states they have been merged with the ministries. This situation has relegated housing development to the background and hardly can we see any government owned housing unlike in the second republic. These has drastically affected the amount of income generated though the real estate sector. However, private partnership participation has enable more person to benefit from the business to improve their personal standard of living. However, the researcher is examining the impact of the real estate sector on the economy growth of Nigeria.1.3   OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The following are the objectives of this study:

To examine the impact of the real estate sector on the growth of Nigeria’s economy. To identify the factors limiting development of the real estate sector in Nigeria. To determine how the real estate sector can contribute massively to the economic development of Nigeria.

1.4   RESEARCH QUESTIONS

What is the impact of the real estate sector on the growth of Nigeria’s economy? What are the factors limiting development of the real estate sector in Nigeria? How can real estate sector contribute massively to the economic development of Nigeria?

1.5   HYPOTHESIS HO: Real estate sector has not contributed to the economic growth of Nigeria. HA: Real estate sector has contributed to the economic growth of Nigeria.1.6   SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The following are the significance of this study:

Findings from this study will be a useful guide for the policy makers and the government of the day on how real estate sector can contribute to the nations development and how the housing policies can be implemented effectively to boost economic growth. This research will also serve as a resource base to other scholars and researchers interested in carrying out further research in this field subsequently, if applied will go to an extent to provide new explanation to the topic.

1.7   SCOPE/LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The scope of this study on the impact of the real estate sector on the growth of Nigeria’s economy will cover the structure and activities of real estate in Nigeria and its contribution to the nation’s economy.LIMITATION OF STUDY

Financial constraint- Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview). Time constraint- The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.  

HOUSING FINANCE IN NIGERIA

HOUSING FINANCE IN NIGERIA: ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 

Housing has been universally recognized as one of the most essential necessities of human life and is a major economic asset in every nation. Adequate housing provides the foundation for stable communities and social inclusion (Oladapo, 2006). Gilbertson et al. (2008) have observed that there is a significant association between housing conditions and physical and mental health of an individual. People’s right to shelter is thus a basic one and the provision of decent housing to all requiring them should be the hallmark of every civilized society and one of the criteria for gauging development. However, the provision of adequate housing in Nigeria and other developing nations alike still remains one of the most intractable challenges facing human and national development.

Previous attempts by all stakeholders, including government agencies, planners and developers to provide necessary recipe for solving the housing problem have yielded little or no success. Teufic and Ural (1978) Ogundele (1989) Agbola (1987) Okpala and Onibokun (1986) recognized finance as part of housing problems but ranked land and building materials higher. Their findings influenced government housing policies and subsequent establishment of some relevant programmes and institutions like the Site and Service Programme and the National Institute of Road and Building Research. The drought of information and working knowledge of housing finance operation is a major problem today. In a tight money market, housing is the first area to suffer, since neither the builder nor the consumer can readily obtain finance for housing. Actually, many builders have difficulty obtaining capital for their projects even in normal times. Two of these problems – the high interest rates that contribute to the high cost of housing and the difficulty in obtaining capital for home construction. According to Onabule (1996) 245 Primary Mortgage Institutions were established under the NHP within 1991-1996. Unfortunately, only 54 are now operating, mainly in South West part of the country and Abuja. According to Abiodun (1999), National Housing Fund collected about 4 billion naira from the Mandatory Saving Scheme. Out of N300 million loan approved by FMBN, only N100million was advanced.

According to Arilesere (1997), Abiodun (2000) and Okupe et al (2000), the history of housing finance in Nigeria had been an appalling one. The sudden leap from Agro-based to Petro-Naira based economy did not help matters. The assertion that “money was not our problem but how to spend it” accredited to one of our Heads of state, is a summary of a Nation that lacked focus in the formative years. This situation together with unprecedented population growth has remained unchecked ever since.

The Housing Sector plays a more critical role in a country’s welfare than is always recognized, as it directly affects not only the well-being of the citizenry, but also the performance of other sectors of the economy. Adequate housing provision has since the early 1970s consequently engaged the attention of most countries, especially the developing ones, for a number of reasons. First, it is one of the three most important basic needs of mankind– the others being food and clothing. Second, housing is a very important durable consumer item, which impacts positively on productivity, as decent housing significantly increases workers’ health and well being, and consequently, growth. Third, it is one of the indices for measuring the standard of living of people across societies. Consequently, programmes of assistance in the areas of finance, provision of infrastructure and research have been designed by governments to enhance its adequate housing delivery. The focus on finance has, however, been very prominent for obvious reasons. This is because housing provision requires huge capital outlay, which is often beyond the capacity of the medium income/low income groups.

A major area of concern has been housing financing, which has often been fingered as one of the most formidable constraints in the housing sector. It is in recognition of the critical importance of finance in housing delivery that the researcher is examining housing financing in Nigeria; issues and solutions.

1.2   STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The problem of housing has become an every day discussion in all quarters of the public and private services of the developing countries of Africa especially in Nigeria which is being focused upon in this study. It has become increasingly glaring that most of the urban population in Nigeria live in dehumanizing housing environment while those that have access to average housing do so at abnormal cost. According to Onibokun (1986), Nubi (1991), rent in major cities of Nigeria is about 60% of an average workers disposable income. Ekweme (1979), Iyagba et al (1998) explained that the rate of demand for new houses was in part predicated on the rate of formation of new houses and in part on the rate of replacement of old housing stock. With this challenges of high cost of house financing in the building sector, the researcher will provide an overview of housing finance in relation to the issues and challenges therein in this study. 1.3   OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The following are the objectives of this study:

To examine the issues related to housing finance in Nigeria. To identify the solution to the issues of housing finance in Nigeria. To ascertain the level of housing finance by the Nigerian government.

1.4   RESEARCH QUESTIONS

What are the issues related to housing finance in Nigeria? What is the solution to the issues of housing finance in Nigeria? What is the level of Nigerian government involvement in housing finance?

1.6   SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The following are the significance of this study:

This outcome of this study will enlighten the general public on the issues of housing finance as it is widely known that the capital involved in housing development is very huge, this study will educate on strategies that can be adopted in executing housing project with minimal financial problems. The outcome of this study will also sensitize the policy makers on the need to make good housing policies and the government of the day on the need to implement the policies by investing massively in housing development especially in the urban area to meet the accommodation needs of the citizens. This research will also serve as a resource base to other scholars and researchers interested in carrying out further research in this field subsequently, if applied will go to an extent to provide new explanation to the topic.

1.7   SCOPE/LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY This study on issues and solutions to housing finance in Nigeria will cover the level of housing development in Nigeria with clear identification of housing problems. It will also cover the level of government investment in housing through the mortgage institutions.LIMITATION OF STUDYFinancial constraint- Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).Time constraint- The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.REFERENCES Onibokun, P. (1985). Housing in Nigeria. Ibadan University Press. Abiodun A. (1999): Housing Finance under National Housing Fund: An appraisal. Paper presented at the General Meeting of the Nigeria Institute of Town Planning. Agboola T. (2000): Housing, Poverty and Environment – The Nigerian situation. A seminar Paper presented at a workshop on Effective approach to Housing delivery In Nigeria. Organized by the Nigerian Institute of Building, Ibadan, Nigeria Arilesere D. (1997): Housing Finance in Nigeria: A paper presented during NIOB Organized workshop on Affordable Housing. Lagos. Okupe L. (2000): The Role of Private Sector in Housing Delivery in Nigeria; A seminar paper on: Effective Approach to Housing Delivery in Nigeria, Organized By Nigerian Institute of Building, Ibadan. Onabule G. (1996): Understanding the role of NHF and Pry. Mortgage Institution in Housing Finance: Paper presented at the Housing Policy Council Seminar on the Implementation of National Housing Policy. Abeokuta. Nubi, T.O. (2002). Financing Low Income Housing in Nigeria Cities: Need for Paradigm Shi. Proceeding of the Faculty of Environmental Design Conference O.A.U. Ile Ife, 340 -345. Iyagba R. and Asumo O. (1997) Housing Crisis in Nigeria Urban and Rural area. A challenge to the construction industry and technology. The Lagos Journal of Environmental Studies Agboola T. (2000) Housing, Poverty and Environment – The Nigerian situation. A seminar Paper presented at a workshop on Effective approach to Housing delivery In Nigeria. Organized by the Nigerian Institute of Building. Ibadan, Nigeria.

MATERIALS MANAGEMENT ON PROJECT DELIVERING

IMPACT OF MATERIALS MANAGEMENT ON PROJECT DELIVERING IN NIGERIA

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY  

The Nigerian building and construction industry continues to occupy an important position in the nation’s economy even though it contributes less than the manufacturing or other service industries, (Aibinu and Jagboro, 2002). The contribution of the building and construction industry to national economic growth necessitates improved efficiency in the industry by means of cost effectiveness and timeliness, and would certainly contribute to cost savings for the country as a whole. It is also common knowledge that the implementation of the construction project in the industry is usually accompanied with poor quality delivery and delivery time delay and cost increase as well as owner dissatisfaction (Hafez, 2001). Thus, the efficient use and management of material have an importance influence on a company's profit and can delay project construction (Abdul­ Rahman and Alidrisyi, 1993). The researchers will examine the impact of material management on project delivery in Nigeria.

Material management is a planned procedure that include, the purchasing, delivery, handling and minimization of waste with the aim of ensuring that requirement are met (Illingworth and Thain, 1998). According to Culvert (1998), a detailed material schedule and co-ordination of the requisition and order of material are important in assuring material availability. Efficient material planning is a key to high productivity on site. Material planning embraces quantifying, ordering and scheduling-. Productivity will suffer if the material planning process is not executed properly (Kaming, Olomolaiye, Holt and Harris, 1997).

Kwik (1994) stated that another issue (which is sometime beyond management control) is material shortages, for example yearly cement shortages have long been a topic of debate within the construction industry. Bell and Stukhart (1987) investigated a total concept for a Material Management System (MMS), which combined and integrated the take-off, vendor evaluation, purchasing expediting, and warehousing and distribution functions of material. The system resulted in improved labour productivity, reduced material surplus, reduced material management, manpower and cost saving. A1-Jibouri (2002) described a computer simulation model, which helps to solve the problem of order and deliveries of materials in real life by keeping a predetermined list of order and delivery time of all the materials on site. The delivery of each kind of material then takes place automatically at the specified time.

Ineffective materials management for projects can result in significant cost blow-outs and delays in project completion. Such cost inefficiencies will negatively impact global competitiveness, and owner operators and engineering, procurement, and construction companies are trying to streamline work processes for their projects. Inaccurate materials information, such as incorrect bills of materials, inaccurate cycle counts, shipping errors, receiving errors and so on, will also affect the overall project life cycle and increase project costs. Having to deal with subcontractors outside of the materials management process impacts the overall project supply chain as there is an increased risk of data inconsistencies.

Material management is the system for planning and controlling to ensure that the right quality and quantity of materials and equipment are specified in a timely manner. Materials should be obtained at a reasonable cost, and be available for use when needed. The cost of materials represents a large proportion of the cost. A good management system for materials management will lead to benefits for construction. Cash flow has become crucial for the survival of any business, if materials are purchased early, capital may be tied up and interest charges incurred on the excess inventory of material. Material may deteriorate during storage or be stolen; also delays and extra expense may be incurred if materials required for particular activities are not available.

Despite the importance of the materials, very little research has been directed towards understanding the management of materials from order to production; most research is focused upon the management of the design and procurement process and on labour site productivity. Materials management, which includes procurement, shop fabrication, logistics, supply chain management, production on site, and field servicing, requires special attention to achieve cost reduction. The supply chain is a convenient term used to describe a complex web of activities. The use of new equipment and innovative methods of materials handling has influenced changes in construction technologies in recent years.

Modern methods of material management have been embraced by the manufacturers across a wide range of industry sectors outside of construction.

1.2   STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Ogunlana and Proukumtong (1996) studied construction delays in a fast growing economy: comparing Thailand with Nigeria and some of the construction delays were attributed to material management: the study blames material shortage on site on unreliable supply from material suppliers occasioned by the general shortage in the industry, although there were specific instances in which poor communication between sites and head office purchasing, planning and co-ordination could be cited. However, much research has not be done on material management and project delivery in Nigeria considering the economic situation of Nigeria and the market full of substandard products. This study will therefore examine the impact of material management of project delivery in Nigeria in terms of quality and time.1.3   OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The following are the objectives of this study:

To examine the impact of material management on project delivery time in Nigeria. To examine the impact of material management on project quality upon delivery in Nigeria. To determine the advantages and disadvantages of material management in project construction.

1.4   RESEARCH QUESTIONS

What is the impact of material management on project delivery time in Nigeria? What is the impact of material management on project quality upon delivery in Nigeria? What are the advantages and disadvantages of material management in project construction in Nigeria?

1.5   HYPOTHESIS HO: Material management does not affect project delivery in Nigeria HA: Material management does affect project delivery in Nigeria

1.6   SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study will be of importance to building professionals and the general public because it would not only clarify but also create awareness of the extent to which inadequacies in material management can adversely affect project delivery. The study will also help contractors, clients, consultants and all parties involved in construction projects about ways of improving their current method of material management. This research will also serve as a resource base to other scholars and researchers interested in carrying out further research in this field subsequently, if applied will go to an extent to provide new explanation to the topic.1.7   SCOPE/LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The scope of this study on impact of material management on project delivery in Nigeria will cover all the project construction in Nigeria looking at their level of adoption of material management approach considering their successes with respect to project delivery quality and time.LIMITATION OF STUDYFinancial constraint- Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).Time constraint- The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.REFERENCES Abdul-Rahman,. H. and Alidrisyi, M. N. (1994) “A Perspective of Material Management Practices in a Fast Developing Economy; the case of Malaysia”. Construction Management and Economics, 12, 412-422. Aibinu A.A and Jagboro G.O (2002): “The Effects of Construction Delays on Projects Delivery in Nigeria Construction Industry”. International Journal of Project Management, 20, 593-599. Al-Jibouri, S. (2002): “Effects of Resource Management Techniques on Projects Schedules”. International Journal of Project Management,   20, 627-632 Kwik.K.G. (1994): “Cement and Its Problem in Indonesia”. Kompas October. 10 Illingworth, J. and Thain, K. (1998): “Material Management is it Worth It?” Technical Information Service, The Chartered Institute of Building ASCOT. 93, 1-5 Kaming, P.F, Olomolaiye, P. O., Holt, G.O. and Harris F.C. (1997): “Factors Influencing Construction Time and Cost Overruns on High-Rise Project in Indonesia”. Construction Management and Economics, 15, 83-94 Hafez, N (2001): “Residential Projects Obstacles and problems in Kuwait MS Project”, Department of Civil Engineering, Kuwait University. Culvert, O. (i998): “Correlates of time Overrun in Commercial Construction”. ASC Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, April 8-10.  

THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON GROUNDWATER

THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON GROUNDWATER BY STUDYING CLIMATE PARAMETERS OF THE SOIL AND ATMOSPHERE

INTRODUCTION  

Water is indispensable for life, but its availability at a sustainable quality and quantity is threatened by many factors, of which climate plays a leading role (IPCC, 1995). Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in Africa and has a rapidly expanding role in irrigation to combat growing food insecurity. This module deals with both the impact of climate change on groundwater resources, It is important to recall the global extent of climate change, and to consider the impacts on the scale of the global hydrologic cycle.

Of Africa’s population of 1 billion, roughly 60% live in rural areas. Around 80% of them rely on groundwater-based community or household supplies for domestic and other water needs (WHO/UNICEF, 2008).

Currently there are more than 300 million people in Africa without access to safe drinking water, many of whom are amongst the poorest and most vulnerable in the world (MacDonald, A.; Bonsor, H.C.; Dochartaigh, B.E.O.; Taylor, R.,, 2012). Climate variability and change influences groundwater systems both directly through replenishment by recharge and indirectly through changes in groundwater use. These impacts can be modified by human activity such as land-use change (Taylor, Nature Climate change, 2013).

Climate change is “an altered state of the climate that can be identified by change in the mean and/or variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer”. It may be due to “natural internal processes or external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use” (IPCC, 2007).

Climate change affects water resources around the world in generally unknown ways. Potential impacts of climate change on surface water particularly projected regional climate patterns and trends (i.e., climate variability and change) have been studied in some detail. Yet, little is known about how subsurface waters will respond to climate change coupled with human activities

We refer to all subsurface water as ‘‘groundwater’’, including soil water and unconfined and confined aquifer waters. Distinctions can be made between these components of groundwater, noting interactions between them and surface water.

The challenges of understanding climate-change impact on groundwater are unprecedented because climate change may affect hydrogeological processes and groundwater resources directly and indirectly (Allen, D. M., Mackie, D. C., Wei, M., 2004). In ways that have not been explored sufficiently

Observational data and climate predictions provide abundant evidence that freshwater resources (both surface and groundwater resources) are vulnerable and have the potential to be strongly affected by climate change, with wide-ranging consequences for society and ecosystems (Calow, R.; MacDonald, A, 2009).

Today, climate change may account for approximately 20% of projected increases in water scarcity globally (Bouraoui, F., Vachaud, G., Li, L. Z. X., Le Treut, H,, Chen, T., 1999).

Thus, there is a need to evaluate and understand climatic variability over the long term to better plan and manage groundwater resources well into the future, while taking into consideration the increasing stresses on those resources from population growth and industrial, agricultural, and ecological needs (Warner, S.D., 2007).

In this project we appraise the state of the science of global change related to all components of groundwater. Scientific issues and methods are placed in the context of global programs aimed at assessment of groundwater resources and adaptation to climate change. The current emphasis is on regional case studies with the potential for global analogues to inform decisions where detailed studies are not presently feasible. In this synthesis of results to date, we provide the type of soft information needed to generalize scientific knowledge and the controlling factors specific to each case study.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

In recent decades, a wide array of scientific research has been carried out to better understand how water resources might respond to global change. However, research has been focused dominantly on surface-water systems, due to their visibility, accessibility and more obvious recognition of surface waters being affected by global change. Only recently, water resources managers and politicians are recognizing the important role played by groundwater resources in meet the demands for drinking water, agricultural and industrial activities, and sustaining ecosystems, as well as in the adaptation to and mitigation of the impacts of climate change and coupled human activities.

These changes in global climate are expected to affect the hydrological cycle, altering surface-water levels and groundwater recharge to aquifers with various other associated impacts on natural ecosystems and human activities. Although the most noticeable impacts of climate change could be changes in surface water levels and quality there are potential effects on the quantity and quality of groundwater

This research I believe will ultimately save a lot of time especially when people do not have to spend money in carrying out agricultural practice or study purpose

1.3 AIM

The aim of the work is to determine the impact of climate change on groundwater by studying Climate parameters of the soil and atmosphere.

1.4 OBJECTIVES

a)   To generate an hourly record of soil moisture, humidity, dew point and temperature

b)     To get an insight into the possible differences in the groundwater level of the areas studied.

c)   To determine impacts of climate change on ground water level for the study area, and to assess the sensitivity of the results to different global climate models;

d)   Analyze weather          parameter data and build future predicted climate change datasets with temperature, humidity, soil moisture and dew point

e)   The time intervals between observations of these parameters (sometimes referred to as data interval) are normally constant. These analyses would enable us to know how these parameters fluctuated with the respect to time and how the fast Fourier transform corrects the irregularities from the frequency trends.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF WORK

This project has the advantage that it is very useful in determining the variations in climate parameters, the suitability of such place for agricultural and study purpose and in determining groundwater level change in three different regions.

1.6 GEOLOGY OF STUDY AREA

The choice of study area for this work was picked at random. For the rural region, a town called Olomoro, Delta state, in Isoko South Local Government Area while for the urban location, a region called Afiesere, Delta state, in Ughelli North was picked. As for Urban-rural location, Ugbomro town, Delta state was picked.

1.7 ARRANGEMENT OF WRITE-UP

In chapter one, the introduction to the project is presented, the aim, objectives and methodology were also presented. Chapter two covers the literature review.

Chapter three presents the methodology and the process of data acquisition. Chapter four covers the result from the acquired data and the Fortran analyzed graphs of the three regions, while chapter five presents the conclusion and recommendation.

EXAMINATION OF THE TREND OF RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE

EXAMINATION OF THE TREND OF RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE IN WARRI, DELTA STATE.  

INTRODUCTON

The evidence of Rainfall and Temperature trend is recognized by today’s world as one of the important environmental problems that affect humanity.It refers to a serious and continuous change in weather pattern, largely attributed to the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapor by humans, mainly produced from thetransport, agriculture, manufacturing and energy sectors of the economy.

Recent changes in climate have led to warmer temperatures, heavy rainfall, drought, and floods etc. (AkinsanolaandOgunjobi, 2014).Therefore, the knowledge of climate variability over the periodof instrumental records and beyond on differenttemporal and spatial scale is important tounderstand the nature of different climate systems andtheir impact on the environment and society (Oguntundeet al. 2012).

Climate variability is the variations of the normalstate and other statistics of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyond that of individual weatherevents. Variability may result from natural internal processes within the climate system (internal variability)or from anthropogenic external forces (external variability) (IPCC 2001, 2005). The global climate has changed rapidly with theglobal mean temperature increasing by 0.7oC within thelast century (IPCC 2007). However, the rates of changeare significantly different among regions (IPCC 2007).This is primarily due to the varied types of land surfaces with different surface albedo, evapotranspiration andcarbon cycle affecting the climate in different ways.

1.1 BACKGROUND TO STUDY

The Niger Delta is a very sensitive area housing several ecosystems or local biomes. This has made it particularly vulnerable to little changes in environmental conditions, weather variability inclusive. Apart from the generalized effects of climate variability, there are certain impacts that are either unique to or more pronounced in the region. Some of these are discussed below.

1.1.1 Coastal Erosion and Flooding

The Niger Delta region is a coastal environment in which Warri is a major city with high rate of petroleum exploration activities. Increased flooding and aggravated erosional activities have been reported in the coastal regions and these have been linked with global warming by the IPCC. According to the IPCC (1990), working with records over the last 100 years, have shown that a strong correlation exist between greenhouse gases emission and climate change and between global temperature and sea level rise. Global temperature is expected to rise by between 0.2oC to 0.5oC per decade. The rise in temperature is expected to cause thermal expansion of sea and melting of polar ice. These will cause the sea level to rise for about 3-10 cm per decade during the next century. In some places, especially in Forcados, some oil wells have been lost to the ocean due to erosion. Apart from coastal erosion, flash flood in general has impacted negatively the livelihood of many communities within the Warri environ as a result of excessive rainfall. Flood and erosion remove top soil, destroy roads, affect fresh water resources and threaten lives and properties. Many people have been rendered homeless by floods and several roads have been made impassable.

1.1.2 Change in Rainfall Pattern

Meteorological data have shown that rainfall pattern in Nigeria has changed in the past decades. Oladipo (1995) reported that the decline in rainfall in Nigeria started at the beginning of the 1960s when a decade of relatively wet years ended. According to him, the persistence of below-mean rainfall in the last two decades in Nigeria is an indication of an abrupt change in climate. The Niger Delta lie predominantly in the tropics having two seasons – the wet and dry seasons. The wet season occur from May to September, while the dry season begins in October and ends in April.Food security has been defined as the ability of people to grow and obtain food. The agricultural sector in Nigeria is highly sensitive to rainfall pattern. It has been predicted that climate variability orchange will pose serious threat to food security. Climate change creates uncertainty in the rainfall pattern (timing and amount) and affects agricultural activities.

Agriculture in the Niger Delta is highly dependent on rain and irrigation is seldom practiced. The changes in the rainfall pattern have greatly affected the agriculture in the region. Farmers in the region begin cultivation at the end of the dry season, when the rain begins to fall. They plant their crops after the first or second rain in the month of March, and sometime in April. After the first rain, the rain falls periodically till the months of June/July (the peak of the rainy season), when rain fall more or less continually. The periodic rainfall pattern before the peak in June enables farmers to cultivate various crops.  Because of the change in rainfall pattern, farmers who plant after the first or second rain in run into huge loss when the rains are delayed beyond the usual due to climatic changes. The crops are scotched causing huge economic loss. Before this time farmers can predict the rain and they know precisely when to plant their crops. The crops after they are planted are watered periodically by rain before the peak of the rainfall in June. The amount of rainfall within the period before the peak is necessary for the optimum performance of many crops most especially the maize which is widely consumed in every part of Nigeria. (Etiosa and Mathew 2007.)

1.1.3 Vegetation Loss

One important feature observed in the study region is the gradual disappearance of primary forests (Etiosa and Agho 2007). This may be partly due to climate change and partly due to human activities. Uncontrolled logging, agricultural activities, acid rain, oil exploration and exploitation, urbanization and mining activities contribute to lose of vegetation. The vegetation of some part of the Niger Delta is dominated by grasses, sedges and shrubs with few scattered trees and they were mainly palm trees. In other parts, trees grow close to one another to form thick canopy over undergrowths.The Niger Delta region of Nigeria which contains one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity on the planet could experience a loss of about 40% of its inhabitable terrain in the next thirty years. As majority of the people living in the Niger Delta are farmers, the environmental and social consequences of climate change is putting livelihoods at serious risks.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The impacts of climate change together with rising world population enact a serious threat to all vital sectors of the world economy. Recent concern about rising global temperature was justified by its negative impact in all sectors of the economy most especially water supply, ecosystems, coastal habitats, industries, health and agriculture sectors. Findings from several studies (Anuforom, 2010; BNRCC, 2011; Farautaet al., 2011; Odjugo, 2010; UNDP 2010) predicted a temperature rise of 1.5 0 to 2.5 0 C for Nigeria in the 21stcentury. The threat has serious negative consequences for all sectors of the economy.

The major climatic challenge prone to the Warri environment is the Flash Flooding which occur more often after an excessive rainfall in which increasing flood risk is now being recognized as the most important sectoral threat from climate change in most parts of the Delta region which has prompted public debate on the apparent increased frequency of extreme, and in particular, on perceived increase in rainfall intensities (Oriola, 1994).

This observed challenge is creatingincreased uncertainty about future temperature andprecipitation regimes which makes investments inagriculture and other weather-dependent livelihoods inherent more risky (FAO, 2008) in study location.

Based on this background, this study attempts to ascertain the degree of variability of weather pattern in Warri, Delta State, in a bid to understanding, managing and possibly predicting the aforementioned related challenges thereby providing an empirical basis for the formulation of effective adaptation and mitigation policies.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Temperature and rainfall trend detection is an important exercise that can provide an indication of the magnitude of climate or weather variability providing a clear picture of the impact in the trends of the study area and a prerequisite for developing a framework for mitigation and adaptation policies. The knowledge of temperature and rainfall trends in the study area has tremendous potential benefits some of which can be highlighted as follows:

It will bring to limelight the potential effect of climate variabilityin Warri city It will enlightenrelevant authorities and residents on applicable adaptation measures It will provide empiricalbasis for the formulation of effective mitigation policies  The project work will serve as an indispensable and valuable data for students, academics and future researches who might be interested in validating their findings in similar settings

1.4AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The Aim of the study is to examine the trend of rainfall and temperature in Warri, Delta State.

The objectives of the research are:

To ascertain the temperature and rainfall trend in Warri, Delta State To discern with certainty the significant changes in temperature and rainfall trend in Warri, Delta State To uncover the implications of observed trend and variations in temperature and rainfall trend in Warri, Delta State

1.5 STUDY AREA 1.5.1 Location and Position

The study area, Warri, has its geographical coordinates as 5°31′N5°45′E/5.517°N 5.750°E/5.517; 5.750 ( Ekeh and Palmer 2005).Warri is a city in Delta State, Nigeria. It is an oil hub in South-South Nigeria and houses an annex of the Delta State Government House .Warri city is one of the major hubs of petroleum activities and businesses in the southern Nigeria. Delta state, southern Nigeriais bounded by Edo state to the north, Anambra state to the east, Rivers state to the southeast, Bayelsa state to the south, the Bight of Benin of the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and Ondo state to the northwest. On the east and south the state is bounded by the lower course and delta of the Niger River.

Delta State currently has twenty-five local government areas. They are: Aniocha North, Aniocha South, Bomadi, Burutu, Ethiope East, Ethiope West, lkaNorthEast, lka South, Isoko North, Isoko South, Ndokwa East, Ndokwa West Okpe, Oshimili North Oshimili South, Patani, Sapele, Udu, Ughelli North, Ughelli South, Ukwani, Uvwie, Warri North, Warri South and Warri SouthWest.

1.5.2 Population

It is a commercial capital city of Delta State, with a population of over 311,970 people according to the national population census figures for 2006. The city is one of cosmopolitan cities in southern Nigeria comprising originally of Urhobo, Itsekiri and Ijaw people.

1.5.3 Climate

The climatic condition of Warri region experiences moderate rainfall and moderate humidity for most part of the year. The climate is equatorial and is marked by two distinct seasons: the dry season and the rainy season. The dry season lasts from about November to April and is significantly marked by the cool "harmattan" dusty haze from the north-east winds. The rainy season spans May to October with a brief dry spell in August, but it frequently rains even in the dry season. The area is characterized by tropical equatorial climate with mean annual temperature of 32.8 °C and annual rainfall amount of 2673.8 mm. There are high temperatures of 20 °C and 29.6 °C. The natural vegetation is of rainforest with swamp forest in some areas. The forest is rich in timber trees, palm trees, as well as fruit trees.

1.5.4 Geology

Warri in Delta State is a part of the Niger Delta Structural Basin in which three major sedimentary cycles have occurred since the early Cretaceous. The subsurface stratigraphic units associated with the cycles are, the Benin, the Agbada and the Akata Formations (Kogbe, 1976). The surface rock throughout the state consists of the OgwashiUku formation. The Benin formation is about 1800m and consists of loose and unconsolidated sands.There is little hydrocarbon associated with it. The underlying Agbada Formation which consists of sandstone and shales is, however, rich in hydrocarbons. It is up to 3000m and is underlain by the Akata Formation. The OgwashiAsaba Formation that underlies the northeast consists of an alternation of lignite seams and clay.

1.5.5 Relief

Warri is a region built up by the sedimentation of the Niger Delta and consists of the delta in various stages of development. Four major physiographic units are identifiable with in it. First, the freshwater swamp which is the most active area. It is located close to the River Niger, where annual flooding and deposition occurs up to 45 km from the river's course.

Second, the man grove swamp area described as an intermediate delta stage. It is much lower and a great proportion of it is brackish, having been invaded by the sea since large amounts of freshwater have ceased flowing into it. Third, the upland and swamp, which is also called the coastal plain.

It lies between the flood plain and Benin lowlands. The swamps are more restricted to broad drainage channels created when this area was an active delta. Fourth and finally, the upland Niger valley, which is a narrow strip above the delta and relatively flood free.

1.5.6 Ecological Problems

The environmental setting of Warri, Delta State has very serious ecological problems such as erosion and flooding. Coastal and creek erosion affect the coastal areas, resulting in loss of farm and residential land, and in some cases whole village such as Ogulaha and Ugborodo (Ibe,1988).

Flood is a widespread phenomenon in the state. In the coastal area, the numerous rivers and creeks flood their banks creating social and economic problems. Flash floods and flood pondages are the major features of the drylands, especially in the urban centre of Warri, Sapele and Ughelli.

In recent times, oil exploitation and gas flaring have further aggravated the ecological problems, causing very serious environmental pollution. The consequences include the destruction of aquatic life and vegetation and reduction in soil productivity.

1.5.7 Socio-Economic Activities

Warri is the economic heartbeat of Delta State, being the divisional headquarter for ShellPetroleum Development Co-operations (SPDC), also a swamp location for exploration andproduction of oil for SPDC. Other oil companies as well as oil servicing companies are alsosituated in the town.Major industries in the area are oil mining, oil servicing, petro- chemicals and sculptural and bronze making establishments.